Persuasive communication

Persuasive communication is at the heart of the selling process, and the sales presentation/demonstration is the critical center stage or Showtime† for salespeople. After asking the customer qualifying questions to uncover specific needs, the salesperson presents the products and services that will best satisfy those needs; highlights their features, advantages, and benefits; and stimulates desire for the offerings with a skillful demonstration. Prospects are primarily interested in the benefits being offered them.Product features and advantages are important only if hey can be tied directly to a specific benefit the prospect is seeking. For instance, pointing out a flat-screen monitor feature when demonstrating a new desktop computer does not mean much to a prospect unless the salesperson explains the related benefits of taking up less desk space, reducing eye strain, and increasing employee productivity. Success in this stage requires development of carefully tailored and pra cticed strategies, including a convincing product demonstration.It's been said that a picture Is worth a thousand words, and a demonstration Is worth a thousand pictures. One successful sales representative always carried a hammer ND a plate of his company's unbreakable glass with him to demonstrate Its strength. One day, Instead of hitting the glass with the hammer himself, he let the prospect do it. From then on, his sales soared as he continued letting customers swing the hammer. Salespeople should always try to get their prospects involved in demonstrating the product or â€Å"trying it out,† so they can gain confidence in using it.A dog-and-pony show, no matter how elaborate, seldom succeeds because prospects usually see its focus as selling the product instead of solving their problems. Salespeople who use skillful questioning and reactive listening while prospects scribe their needs can often adjust their sales presentation and demonstration on the fly to provide the b est customer solutions. Various sales presentation strategies are presented In Table 4. 6, but most professional BIB salespeople find the consultative professional strategy to be most effective, along with tactics that anticipate likely Interactions between buyer and seller.Like an actor or athlete, the salesperson needs to diligently practice the sales presentation with a sales associate or friend. Some salespeople enroll in sales presentation training programs offered by impasses like Empowerment Group (www. Empowerment's. Com/ presentation_training. HTML) as a way to further develop their proficiency (Figure 4. 3). Adaptive versus Canned Sales Presentations. Traditional salespeople tend to make relatively standard sales presentations that don't vary much from one prospect to another.Top-performing salespeople try instead to adapt each presentation to the particular prospect and selling situation. 16 Salespeople who modify their presentations according to specific prospect or cust omer needs and behaviors are more effective than those who do not. 7 This point may seem obvious, but only salespeople who are Inclined to adjust their sales presentation to the customer are likely to do so during the sales call-1 8 Successful salespeople regularly practice adapting their sales presentation to different customer feedback during the presentation.For example, if the purchasing manager for Hertz (womb. Hertz. Com) shows more interest in safety than in gas mileage, then an observant salesperson for General Motors (womb. GM. Com) can quickly adapt the sales presentation by emphasizing the safety benefits of GM cars. Although adaptive ailing is generally best, canned (or programmed) selling can be appropriate for some types of prospects, selling situations, and salespeople.In fact, the most effective sales presentations often blend the canned and adaptive approaches. 19 Many professional salespeople use programmed multimedia to present general information efficiently and effectively and to enliven their sales presentations. During the multimedia presentation, salespeople are able to closely observe the prospect's reaction and accordingly better adapt later stages of the sales presentation. To gauge how adaptive you are as a salesperson, take the test in Table 4. 7.

Be given order description

Free riding can be avoided when group members and leaders ensure that all of them have their own tasks to accomplish toward the attainment of the group’s goal or completing a particular project. This argument is further explored in this essay in addition to previous empirical studies about the theory of social loafers.Free riding theory Free riding theory explains why there are individuals who may choose not to exert little or any effort since they are able to benefit form other members of the group where they belong after all.This theory suggests that an individual’s decision in participating in a group work compares the net expected benefits of exerting effort for the group and the net expected benefits of free riding (Albanese & Van Fleet, 1985). Free riders are individuals or students, in particular, who contribute little or nothing in attaining group goals or working on group projects (Delucchi, 2006). They exist because students differ in their own reasons and mot ivation when doing things, especially when others are involved.While others are trying their best to come up with outstanding projects output, others are simply satisfied with certain extent of accomplishment or results. This is the reason why some group members complain that others are not fulfilling their given responsibilities. Often free riders are seen as exploitative because they usually benefit from the effort of others even if they have not participated or only had little contribution to the attainment of group projects or goals. Advantages and disadvantages of group work The benefits of team or group work are undeniable for studies have proven its effectiveness in student’s learning.According to Eastman and Swift (2002), group work teaches students on how to collaboratively work to become more productive, more efficient, more competitive, and more creative. It also exposes them to different learning experiences and opportunities to improve their skills in organizing, communication, negotiation, problem solving, dealing with higher cognitive and technical aspects, setting goals, leadership, overcoming conflicts and difficulties, delegating work, and dealing effectively with others (Thorley & Gregory, 1994; Buckenmyer, 2000; Colbeck, Campbell, & Bjorklund, 2000).In addition, group work promotes collaborative or cooperative learning though appropriate and innovative learning methods with the use of information technology (Ravenscroft, 1997; Buckenmyer, 2000). Jones and Brickner (1996) stress the bebefits of group work in learning when students are encouraged to become actively involved and aim for development, better in class standing, higher test results, and improved attitudes towards instructor and other students. It does not hinder the students from becoming independent and autonomous learners for group work actually strengthens their capacity to perform better in school and practical situations.On the other hand, Gremler, Hoffman, Keaveney, a nd Wright (2000) found that group members often have difficulty in addressing the free riders for some students have to use words against other members when the teacher finds no proof in determining fair grades. Eastman and Swift (2002) also assert that one of the problems with group projects are the presence of free-riders, also called social loafers, hitchhikers or workhorses (Albanese & Van Fleet, 1985; Cottell & Millis, 1993).Another issue that has to be addressed when it comes to group problem includes the failure of group members to contribute ideas, exchange thoughts, share information and skills or work together effectively in order to accomplish complex tasks (Tullar, Kaiser, & Balthazard, 1998). The lack of coordination can lead to poor results when members are given specific responsibilities without working and consulting each other before a project is almost finished and to be submitted.Moreover, students’ grades could possibly suffer if assigned projects are not given enough time allocation for the students to work together and discuss the topics and management activities in the class to make their work more cohesive. Organizing face-to-face group meetings is difficult and teachers’ assistance is also crucial during the completion period of any group project so they need to allot more class hours for group projects to ensure quality and equal division of labor. Problems in group work, in which all members are assessed as a whole, can be avoided when they provide proof of participation.The free rider issue causes problems in group work for they usually depend on other member’s effort. Students can avoid resentment that free riders are getting the same grade even if they are not as responsible as others in a group by changing class policy or rules, like imposing peer evaluation, requiring checklists, and monitoring (Payne, Monk-Turner, Smith, & Sumter, 2006). Conclusion Albanese and Van Fleet (1985) found that individuals tend t o become free riders when they perceive satisfactory benefits even without contributing their fair share to the group.Free riders are the potential or rationally thinking members that may prefer not to exert great effort in helping others to achieve certain goals but still obtain benefits. When the cost of his effort exceeds the expected outcome of the group’s effort, the free rider is less likely to exert any more effort. In order to avoid such problems including other issues related to group work, changing of class policy can be an effective mitigating measure. References Albanese, R & Van Fleet, D. D. (1985). â€Å"Rational Behavior in Groups: The Free-Riding Tendency. † In Diamond, M. & O'Toole, A. (2004).â€Å"Leaders, Followers, and Free Riders: The Community Lawyer's Dilemma When Representing Non-Democratic Client Organizations. † Fordham Urban Law Journal, 31(2), 481+. Buckenmyer, J. A. (2000). â€Å"Using teams for class activities: Making course/class room teams work. † In Eastman, J. K. & Swift, C. O. (2002). â€Å"Enhancing Collaborative Learning: Discussion Boards and Chat Rooms as Project Communication Tools. † Business Communication Quarterly, 65(3), 29+. Colbeck, C. L. , Campbell, S. E. , & Bjorklund, S. A. (2000). â€Å"Grouping in the dark: What college students learn from group projects. † In Eastman, J. K. & Swift, C.O. (2002). â€Å"Enhancing Collaborative Learning: Discussion Boards and Chat Rooms as Project Communication Tools. † Business Communication Quarterly, 65(3), 29+. Cottell, P. G. & Millis, B. (1993). â€Å"Cooperative learning structures in the instruction of accounting. † Issues in Accounting Education, 8 (Spring), 40-59. In Eastman, J. K. & Swift, C. O. (2002). â€Å"Enhancing Collaborative Learning: Discussion Boards and Chat Rooms as Project Communication Tools. † Business Communication Quarterly, 65(3), 29+. Delucchi, M. (2006). â€Å"The Efficacy of Collaborat ive Learning Groups in an Undergraduate Statistics Course.† College Teaching, 54(2), 244+. Diamond, M. & O'Toole, A. (2004). â€Å"Leaders, Followers, and Free Riders: The Community Lawyer's Dilemma When Representing Non-Democratic Client Organizations. † Fordham Urban Law Journal, 31(2), 481+. Eastman, J. K. & Swift, C. O. (2002). â€Å"Enhancing Collaborative Learning: Discussion Boards and Chat Rooms as Project Communication Tools. † Business Communication Quarterly, 65(3), 29+. Gremler, D. D. , Hoffman, K. D. , Keaveney, S. M. , & Wright, L. K. (2000). â€Å"Experiential learning exercises in services marketing courses. † In Eastman, J. K. & Swift, C. O. (2002).â€Å"Enhancing Collaborative Learning: Discussion Boards and Chat Rooms as Project Communication Tools. † Business Communication Quarterly, 65(3), 29+. Jones, J. D. & Brickner, D. (1996). â€Å"Implementation of cooperative learning in a large-enrollment basic mechanics class. † I n Eastman, J. K. & Swift, C. O. (2002). â€Å"Enhancing Collaborative Learning: Discussion Boards and Chat Rooms as Project Communication Tools. † Business Communication Quarterly, 65(3), 29+. Payne, B. K. , Monk-Turner, E. , Smith, D. , & Sumter, M. (2006). â€Å"Improving Group Work: Voices of Students. † Education, 126(3), 441+.Ravenscroft, S. P. (1997). â€Å"In support of cooperative learning. † In Eastman, J. K. & Swift, C. O. (2002). â€Å"Enhancing Collaborative Learning: Discussion Boards and Chat Rooms as Project Communication Tools. † Business Communication Quarterly, 65(3), 29+. Thorley, L. & Gregory, R. (Eds. ) (1994). Using Group-based Learning in Higher Education. In Eastman, J. K. & Swift, C. O. (2002). â€Å"Enhancing Collaborative Learning: Discussion Boards and Chat Rooms as Project Communication Tools. † Business Communication Quarterly, 65(3), 29+. Tullar, W. L. , Kaiser, P. R. , & Balthazard, P. A. (1998).â€Å"Group work and electronic meeting systems: From boardroom to classroom. † In Eastman, J. K. & Swift, C. O. (2002). â€Å"Enhancing Collaborative Learning: Discussion Boards and Chat Rooms as Project Communication Tools. † Business Communication Quarterly, 65(3), 29+. Sources: Introduction For those who use group projects, the teaching strategy is particularly appealing because of its versatility. Group projects can be organized as short-term or long-term projects. Short-term group projects might have students work together for a class period or part of a class period in an effort to learn more about a particular topic.Long-term projects could be spread out over several class periods, or the entire semester. Regardless of how long the projects are designed to last, research shows a number of benefits of group work. Among others, those benefits that have been identified in the literature include the following: (1) students learn teamwork skills, (2) students improve their critical thin king skills, and (3) students gain more insight about a particular topic. As far as teamwork skills go, surveys of employers show that employers want college graduates to have developed teamwork skills (Blowers 2000).Advocates of group projects suggest that the pedagogical strategy affords students a firsthand experience to gain teamwork skills (Colbeck et al. 2000: Davis and Miller 1996: Young and Henquinet 2000). In this regard, it is believed that group projects â€Å"can effectively serve as a bridge between the academic community and the business world† (Lordan 1996: 43). Ideally, working with their peers, students will learn decision making skills and how to communicate with one another (Dudley, Davis, and McGrady 2001).In addition, the symbolic interactionist in many of us would likely not be surprised by research that shows that group work helps students develop social skills (Andrusyk and Andrusyk 2003). By working with others, students are able to assign meaning to the actions of their peers as well as their own actions. They also receive feedback–formal, informal, or both–from their peers. The feedback combined with their own interpretations of group work should foster growth in terms of students' social abilities.Under the right circum stances, the well designed and implemented group work should also help students develop their critical thinking skills (Colbeck et al. 2000; Dudley et al. 2001). While we are not aware of any studies that have examined how group projects foster the development of critical thinking skills, general findings about group work from past research tacitly suggest that the strategy could be successful in this regard. For instance, some research suggests that group projects help students to address ethical and societal considerations that arise when students work together (Roberts-Kirchoff and Caspers 2001).If the student group is diverse, students will learn about one another's backgrounds, values, and b eliefs. Indeed, others have also suggested that group projects can help students learn about multicultural issues they would otherwise not learn about (Doyle, Beatty, and Shaw 1997). Researchers also suggest that students may learn more about whatever topic is being considered if they work in groups. For example, Adams and Slater (2002) suggest that group work supplementing lectures helps make courses more interesting to students, and subsequently helps students learn more.Most instructors have stood in front of a class only to wonder if their only purpose on that day was to serve as a sedative for the majority of the class. Group work advocates argue that most any topic can be made interesting by actively involving students in the topic through some form of collaborative learning, of which group work is just one strategy. While a number of strengths for this form of teaching strategy have been noted in the literature, potential drawbacks have limited its use. In this study, we cons ider how students believe group projects should be changed in order improve their pedagogical success.METHODS Surveys were distributed to 145 students who had just recently completed a group project. The group project was a semester long group research project that students completed. A survey composed of both open-ended and close-ended questions was distributed to the students at the end of the semester. The results of the open-ended questions have been addressed elsewhere. In one of the close-ended questions, students were asked what they would change about future group projects. The results to this answer were content analyzed using standard rules of content analysis.FINDINGS The students had a number of recommendations for future group work. These recommendations were divided into student centered and faculty centered themes. Student centered themes were those recommendations in which respondents seemed to be offering advice to future students participating in similar projects. These included (1) communication as a value to improve group work, (2) leadership and teamwork, and (3) goal development. Faculty centered themes were those recommendations in which respondents were citing things faculty members could do to improve group work.The following four faculty centered themes were uncovered in the analysis: (1) oversight, (2) grades, (3) situational themes, and (4) anomic themes. Student Centered Themes Communication as a Strategy to Improve Group Work. Several students, recognizing the importance of interpersonal communication, recommended that fellow group project participants hone their communication skills. Students offered tips such as â€Å"Listen to everyone's idea–No matter what it is;† â€Å"Make sure everyone understands the information and the process;† and â€Å"Communication is key. When a group fails to communicate, the group as a whole suffers.† Another student recommended, â€Å"just bonding more† while ano ther cited â€Å"people keeping in touch† as a step to improve group work. Leadership and Teamwork. Students also provided advise suggesting the importance of leadership and teamwork in future group projects. In terms of leadership, students made comments such as the following: * Assigned leaders are needed. * Assign more specific roles. * Need to have defined task assignments for members. Some students provided a bit of detail describing the importance of leadership in group projects. For example, one student made the following comments:It was easier to get the project done by dividing up the work. We worked well together for the most part. One individual has considerable leadership talents and he kept our group on track. Others just deferred to his ideas and we did what he told us to do. He assigned our tasks and made sure they were completed. Another student who made the following comments also described this leadership process: [You need to] learn the habits of others and learning who has the qualities of taking charge of a group. I thought it was interesting to watch who would become the leader and which group would members would follow the leader.With regard to teamwork, students also suggested that, while groups may need a leader, members of the group must be willing to work together. Students made comments such as â€Å"Everyone has to do their part;† â€Å"Everyone working together and doing their part;† â€Å"Teamwork;† and â€Å"Spread around responsibility. † The need to work together appeared to be an especially salient recommendation in this sample. One student emphasized this need in the following manner: â€Å"Everyone has to work together!! † Indirectly indicative of the need to work together, students recognized the need to share all aspects of the project.As an illustration, according to one student, future students doing group projects must remember to â€Å"bring calculators to the restaurant or b ar to figure out a fair tip for the bartender divided five ways. † Goal Development. Some comments made by students also implied the importance of goal development for future group projects. For example, one student advised, â€Å"We all had the same motivation and ambition. † Other students made comments such as â€Å"clarity of goals† and â€Å"commitment to goal† as suggestions for future group. In considering their goals, some students seemed to define their grade as the goal.Said one student, â€Å"If everyone was equally dedicated to getting good grades, or if groups were assigned based no dedication. † Another student recommended that students â€Å"take their job seriously, not just for their grades, but for others' grades. † Faculty Centered Themes Oversight. In terms of faculty centered themes, some students suggested more faculty input in future group projects as a strategy to improve group work. Some students recommended more guid ance in the beginning of the project. One student, for example, said, â€Å"The instructor should assign the topic instead of letting the group pick a topic.† Another student said, â€Å"The teacher could have taught more in the beginning. † A third student called for â€Å"more direction from the instructor,† implying that direction would help in the beginning of the project. Other students recommended assistance in motivating group members. For instance, one student said, â€Å"Specific deadlines may help group members turn in their material in a timely manner. † Grades. Several students offered recommendations for how professors overseeing group projects should grade the projects. One student, for instance, recommended that professors use grades to â€Å"to force the students to participate.† Another student expanded on this recommendation: [You should have] mandatory meetings, groups should be graded on how often they come to the group when the y meet. It would make a person show up more to group meetings because a percentage of his or her grade would depend on it. Other students also resented the fact that â€Å"free riders† were getting the same grade they got and recommended changing this policy. One student said that â€Å"having some of the project reflect individuals so that everyone is not getting the same grade† would help group work.Another student said, â€Å"I didn't like relying on someone else and having it effect my grade point average. † A third student who made the following comments seemed even more concerned about â€Å"common grades† [You need] more accountability for individual work. When my grade depends on the intelligence and responsibility of other people, I get nervous, especially when some don't bother to come to class. Interestingly. when students talked about grades, they were not concerned with what they were learning or doing: rather, they were concerned with almost solely with their grade and whether it was fair.Situational Themes. Situational themes refer to comments that reflected specific dynamics of the group project that instructors could possibly influence. Three situational themes that arose included the number of meetings, time, and location. In terms of the number of meetings, one student recommended that â€Å"Members should meet as frequently as possible. † To be sure, faculty members could require a certain number of group meetings. With regard to time, a student said that â€Å"longer class periods† would improve group work. Another student suggested that â€Å"time †¦and less stress from other courses† would improve group work. While faculty cannot control the amount of stress students feel from their other courses, they can control the amount of class time devoted to a group project. In terms of location, students also made recommendations regarding where the group project work should be done. For exam ple, one student said the following: â€Å"I have trouble doing group work where there are many groups working on different projects in the same room. I like that we were able to meet at different locations outside of school.† Another student also said she had problems meeting in class and recommended â€Å"more discipline from other groups that are in the same vicinity. † Anomic Themes. Some students made comments which we characterized as â€Å"anomic themes† because the students were unable to suggest anything positive about group work, or improving group work. In effect, they seem to exhibit a sense of normlessness or an enormous aversion to group work. For example, when asked what could be done to improve group work, some students made the following comments: * Getting rid of it * Nothing can be done to improve group work.It is inevitable. * There's always going to be problems. Other students provided a little more detail describing their aversion to group work. One student, for instance, said that it is important to remember for future projects â€Å"that there are some people who will never be reliable and some that always have to be the bomb. † Perhaps the most pessimistic comment made was the following: I didn't like anything. We shouldn't have to do group projects or any kind of individual research projects. I don't think research projects will help us in our jobs in the future. Itisn't needed and is a waste of time. It is important to note that the vast majority of students had favorable impressions of the project. DISCUSSION Based on what our students learned, a number of suggestions can be made for future group projects. These recommendations include: (1) overcoming faculty resistance to group work, (2) overcoming student resistance to group work, (3) ensuring students realize the purpose of the project, (4) providing appropriate oversight for students, (5) scheduling the group work appropriately, and (6) helping groups set and attain goals of the project.These suggestions are addressed below. First, enough research has been done to show that group projects, in various forms, can be an important part of students† undergraduate curriculum. Faculty must come to appreciate and realize the importance of these group projects. Of course, group projects are not a panacea and some faculty hold these projects in complete disregard (Ashraf 2004). However, students have much to gain from group projects. Not only will they learn about the topic, but just as important, students will learn important skills, and they will learn about themselves.Certainly, group projects are not appropriate for all courses or all instructors. Still, group projects should be integrated into all majors' coursework in one form or another to ensure that majors are learning how to work together, how to learn from one another, and how to communicate with one another. Second, faculty who implement group projects in their courses w ill need to overcome student resistance to group efforts. This aversion likely stems from the fact that students are accustomed to traditional pedagogical strategies in which instructors lecture to students, who are tested on the lectures.Over one hundred years ago, in The Theory of the Leisure Class, Thorstein Veblin (1899) commented, The aversion to change is in large part an aversion to the bother of making the readjustment which any given change will necessitate †¦. A consequence of this increased reluctance, due to the solidarity of human institutions, is that any innovation calls for a greater expenditure of nervous energy in making the necessary readjustment than would otherwise be the case. Indeed, based on our experiences, we have seen many students expend â€Å"nervous energy in making the necessary readjustment† that makes the accustomed to group work.Imagine for a moment if group work were the traditional and customary teaching style for students. Then, what would happen if we pulled the group out from under them and asked them to do an individual project? Many students would likely have the same aversion that they now have to group work. They'd have to learn new strategies of doing things, and this is something many of us resist. In the end, it seems what is best is to find a blend of teaching strategies in which students are encouraged to work both individually and in groups.Third, and on a related point, faculty should stress to students what they have to gain from group projects. Typically one would expect that the goals of the group project are not just completing the project, but gaining the experience of working together. This aspect of group work should be included on the syllabus so that students realize that the faculty member empathizes with students' concerns. At a minimum, students should be told how group work improves their communication skills, enhances their critical thinking skills, allows for reciprocal learning, and teaches them to work together.From a symbolic interactionist perspective, communicating openly with students about the purpose of group projects will help to give meaning to the students' experiences. Assigning meaning to their experiences before the projects begin will also help better understand one another's actions. They will learn that conflict is possible and that they can overcome this conflict by working together. Moreover, their interactions with members of their groups will help to develop them as novice social scientists (See Berg 2004). Fourth, faculty members should provide appropriate oversight over the groups as needed.It's not just our students who noted the need for oversight Research by Livingstone and Lynch (2000) finds that the degree of faculty guidance will play a role in determining whether the students find value in team-based learning. Oversight is especially important in the beginning stages of the group project when group members are still in the process o f the defining their own roles and tasks as well as their peers' roles and tasks. Part of this direction should be instilling within students the importance of learning teamwork skills (Page and Donelan 2003).Direction may be needed to make sure that students are attending group sessions and working towards the ideals of the group. While group members may do things themselves to encourage participation by fellow group members, ultimately, the instructor has the greatest leverage over students. Describing the direction that faculty members should provide, Lordan (1996: 45) writes, â€Å"Like supervisors in the professional world, the teacher should strike a balance between letting students work out their own problems and stepping in to keep them on track.† As well, instructors need to provide oversight inasmuch as they are helping students find suitable places on campus to do their group work. (They may also want to remind students how to do division long hand so they are able to divide up the tip for the waiter or waitress at the bar or restaurant where they meet with their calculators). Fifth, instructors should make sure students are clear on how they will be graded on group projects. Here, as noted earlier, there is great disagreement among those using group projects as to the best way to assess group projects.Some instructors prefer to give all group members the same grade for the group project. Others see this process as inherently unfair (cites) and call for individual grades. Whatever grading method is used, it is important that students understand the grading process and its rationale. Finally, instructors should play a role in helping groups to define, and refine, their goals. Our experience has been that students tend to define their goals in three stages. First, they begin with aspirations of getting a good grade. The next stage replaces the goal of a good grade with the goal of completing the project successfully.This stage is ultimately rep laced with the goal of a good grade. Instructors can foster better goal attainment by encouraging students to focus more on learning and less on getting a good grade. If groups can define the group's goals, and the members' goals, in a way that they focus more on tasks (e. g. , developing a good research question, gathering literature, developing a methodology, doing the research, analyzing the research, and writing a final paper) and learning rather than getting a good grade, then the likelihood of a successful group project increases.Tying individual goals in with group goals is a central aim of collaborative learning (Johnson and Johnson 1994). Students in this study at least indirectly recognized the importance of meshing their own goals with those of the group. Our intent in this paper is not to be prescriptive but to simply generate thought and discussion about a common type of active learning strategy. We recognize that professors vary in their teaching strategy preferences. We do not expect all professors to want to use group projects in their courses, nor do we expect all courses to be amenable to group projects.Still, it is hoped that all undergraduates will participate in at least some group projects during their undergraduate years. While there are flaws with group projects, the benefits of getting students to work with one another are meaningful enough to rely at least somewhat on group projects in some courses. REFERENCES Adams, Jell and Tim Slater. 2002. â€Å"Learning through Sharing. † Journal of College Science Teaching 31: 384-386. Andrusyk, D. and S. Andrusyk. 2003. Improving Student Social Skills through the Use of Coop erative Learning Strategies. M. A. Research Project, Saint Xavier University, Abstract accessed from ERIC, July 5, 2004.Ashraf, Mohammad. 2004. â€Å"A Critical Look at the Use of Group Projects as a Pedagogical Tool. † Journal of Education for Business 79(4), 213-216. Blowers, Paul. 2003. â€Å"Using Student Skill Assessments to get Balanced Groups for Group Projects. † College Teaching 51(3): 106-110. Colbeck, Carol L.. Susan E. Campbell, and Stefani Bjorklund. 2000. â€Å"Grouping in the Dark. † Journal of Higher Education 71: 60-78. Davis. Barbara and Thomas Miller. 1996. â€Å"Job Preparation liar the 21st Century. † Journal of Education for Business 71 (5): 258-270. Doyle, Eva. Chris Beatty, and Mary Shaw. 1999.â€Å"Using Cooperative Learning Groups to Develop Healthy Cultural Awareness. † Journal of Social Health 69(2): 73-80. Dudley, Lola, Henry David, and David McGrady. 2001. â€Å"Using an Investment Project to Develop Professional Competencies in Introduction to Financial Accounting. † Journal of Education for Business 76(3): 125-131. Johnson, D. W. and R. T. Johnson. 1994. Learning Together and Alone. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Livingstone, David and Kenneth Lynch. 2000. â€Å"Group Project Work and Student Centered Active Learning. â₠¬  Studies in Higher Education 25(3): 325-345. Lordan, Edward. 1996.â€Å"‘Using Group Projects to Sharpen Students' PR Skills. † Public Relations Quarterly 41 (2): 43-47. Page, Diana and Joseph G. Donelan. 2003. â€Å"Team Building Tools for Students. † Journal of Education for Business 78(3): 125-128. Roberts-Kirchoff. Elizabeth and Mary Lou Caspers, 2001. â€Å"Dialogues as Teaching Tools. † Biochemistry and Molecular-Biology Education 29(6): 225-228. Young, Carol B. and Janet A. Henquinet. 2000. â€Å"A Conceptual Framework for Designing Group Projects. † Journal of Education for Business 76(1): 56-60. Brian K. Payne Elizabeth Monk-Turner Donald Smith Melvina Sumter Deportment of Sociology and Criminal JusticeOld Dominion University. Norfolk. Virginia Payne, Brian K. , Monk-Turner, Elizabeth, Smith, Donald, & Sumter, Melvina (2006). â€Å"Improving Group Work: Voices of Students. † Education, 126(3), 441+. COPYRIGHT 2006 Project Innovati on (Alabama); COPYRIGHT 2006 Gale Group Group projects are integral to the business curriculum and can be useful in developing students' skills and abilities as managers. However, faculty encounter several problems with group projects, including assessing students' efforts, aiding good communication and coordination among members, and making sure the project is a truly collaborative effort.Technology may aid in addressing these problems; electronic discussion boards and chat rooms, for example, can help faculty and students enhance collaboration and increase the accountability of group members. Keywords: Discussion boards, chat rooms, collaborative learning, student projects INCREASED GLOBAL COMPETITION and other changes in the business environment over the last several years have led organizations to restructure themselves. One aspect of that restructuring is a shifting of responsibility and decision making downward and a movement toward self-directed work teams (Cohen, 1993).To pr epare students to thrive in this environment, we obviously need to teach them effective teamwork and communication skills. This article describes two tools that can help accomplish this task, the electronic discussion board and the chat room. These can foster interdependence in group projects and deeper, active learning. First, we discuss the need for and benefits of collaborative projects, the problems of group work, and the role of technology in such projects. We then provide recommendations for incorporating these electronic tools in business communication classes.Need for Collaborative Projects in Business Courses As many researchers have noted, the structural shift towards teams occurring in many organizations should be reflected in the classroom (Bobbitt, Inks, Kemp, & Mayo, 2000). Using groups in class thus prepares students to work collaboratively in the business environment while promoting collaborative learning in the classroom itself. The first benefit of group work in th e classroom is that it teaches students how to work collaboratively in the business environment.Business organizations repeatedly indicate that the increased use of teams in the real world has increased students' need for exposure and experience with teams (Buckenmyer, 2000). Companies that use teams creatively spend many hours and dollars training individuals to work in teams and training managers to manage teams. Through working in groups, students can enhance their abilities in setting goals, delegating work, and dealing with conflict (Colbeck, Campbell, & Bjorklund, 2000). They can also improve their communication, leadership, problem solving, and technical skills.All of these skills are highly rated by recruiters and employers and will help graduates meet the demands and rigors of the workplace (McNally, 1994). The second benefit of group work is that these projects promote collaborative learning. University educators have embraced cooperative learning methods as ways to engage students and to foster cooperation (Ravenscroft, 1997). Researchers have found that the values of Generation X are highly individualistic, visually-oriented, and aligned with information technology, not with the sharing of information (Buckenmyer, 2000).Thus, group course projects, with proper guidance, can help these students learn to deal effectively with others. Group work learning can be an excellent way of encouraging the development of higher cognitive skills in students (Thorley & Gregory, 1994) and can be effective even for relatively quiet group members. When groups work well, students consistently fare better in class, on tests, and in attitudes towards the instructor and each other (Jones & Brickner, 1996).The quality of learning is improved by peer support, with students gaining experience in communication, negotiation, organization, and task management. Cooperative methods have been recognized as effective ways to motivate students to become actively involved in learni ng. The collaborative group project creates a forum that allows students to take an active approach towards their own education. The security of working within a group provides an excellent entree into the progression to independent and autonomous learning (Maguire & Edmondson, 2001).Problems with Group Projects The many benefits of collaborative projects, however, are often offset by problems. First, a common problem is the failure of the group to work together effectively. Students may exert an individual effort but are unable to coordinate their efforts effectively with their group members to achieve any kind of synergistic benefits (Tullar, Kaiser, & Balthazard, 1998). Group members need to be contributing their ideas, questioning and learning from each other, and building on the efforts of the other members.For collaborative learning to occur, students must coordinate the diverse skills and abilities of their group members to address a complex task (Tullar et al. , 1998). A sec ond problem is that often group members simply divide a project so that each individual writes a portion. Then, just before the project is due, the students bring in their disks and combine files without coordinating their efforts or talents effectively. Third, group work often leads to unequal contributions of members, resulting in â€Å"hitchhikers† and â€Å"workhorses† (Cottell & Millis, 1993).These â€Å"hitchhikers,† also called â€Å"free riders† and â€Å"social loafers,† can cause problems in the workflow of the group, as they do not do their fair share. Members of the group have difficulty addressing the free-rider problem and documenting the problem and their efforts to solve it (Gremler, Hoffman, Keaveney, & Wright, 2000). The issue becomes one student's word against another's as the teacher tries to determine fair individual grades. Finally, group projects are often assigned without the allocation of class time for groups to develop co operative skills or to become cohesive (Michaelsen, 1992).There is limited time in class to discuss both the needed topics and the mechanics of group management. In many cases, groups meet on evenings and weekends when faculty members are not available for assistance. Additionally, many group members are geographically and temporally dispersed, which makes organizing face-to-face group meetings difficult. The Role of Technology in Enhancing Collaborative Learning Active and cooperative learning approaches will be counterproductive unless they are thoughtfully implemented and well supported.Communication tools like discussion boards and chat rooms can be effective in inter-team collaboration as well as in faculty-student communication. These tools can help ease the problems discussed in the previous section. By solving these problems with technology, faculty can address three learning goals: empowering students, improving their communication skills, and developing their ability to wo rk collaboratively. Finally, these technological communication tools offer teaching opportunities by allowing faculty to be more accessible to students and to track students' efforts better.Addressing Group Project Problems Internet-based tools can be a tremendous help in coordinating team efforts, particularly when the team is geographically (whether by a few miles or a few thousand miles) or temporally dispersed (Kaiser, Tullar, & McKowen, 2000). With technology, groups can meet either synchronously, using chat rooms, or asynchronously, using threaded discussion boards, in which group members contribute to the group discussion at times convenient to their schedules over a defined time period.These tools enable everyone in the group to talk at the same time or at their convenience by typing their comments into the forum that instantly distributes their comments. Additionally, strong personalities have greater difficulty dominating the group as everyone has equal access to the †Å"floor. † Students may feel more comfortable presenting ideas this way than in a face-to-face meeting, and the quality and professionalism of their ideas may be higher, knowing that their participation is being monitored.The discussion forum also gives all students ample time for reflection so students' responses are often more thoughtful than those in face-to-face situations. Studies have illustrated this level of increased and more evenly distributed participation from students in computer-supported groups (Tullar et al. , 1998). Addressing Learning Goals Projects provide opportunities for experiential learning, that is, students apply what they have learned to real-world situations and thus develop decision-making skills. But in doing so, projects often produce anxiety as students struggle to determine what answer the instructor wants.However, with these projects, whether it be a case, a report of a business issue, or a business plan, faculty are typically not searching fo r one right answer, but rather are concerned with the process that students use in solving problems. Teaching students to ask the right questions is thought to be more important than giving students the right answers. In the real world, there is neither one right answer nor is there a â€Å"sage on a stage† that can direct students to the right answer. Students need to learn how to find and to support the answers for themselves.The use of electronic discussion boards and chat rooms can aid student learning in the struggle through the project process. Thus, three learning goals can be addressed through the use of electronic discussion boards and chat rooms with experiential group projects: (1) empowering students to become active participants in their learning, (2) increasing students' communication skills in describing and solving problems, and (3) enhancing students' abilities to collaborate and work with others in developing their own resources in solving problems.To achiev e these goals, education must involve interactivity among instructors, students, and the materials, and electronic discussion boards and chat rooms can enrich that interactivity. Providing Additional Teaching Opportunities Another advantage of these tools is the opportunity for faculty to participate in the discussions and e-mails. Faculty can use these tools to demonstrate concern for students and to provide additional accessibility and feedback.In fact, the transactional distance encourages faculty to maintain a facilitative role rather than an authoritative role (Moore, 1993). Finally, these tools make it easier for faculty and students to keep track of what everyone has said as there is a written record (Kaiser et al. , 2000). Students have the opportunity to reorganize and reshape their understanding of course content. The Web-based tools allow thoughts to be captured for future examination, elaboration, and extension. The end result is usually more robust and thoughtful discus sions.In fact, threaded discussions can extend the time that both instructors and students invest in the course (Bruce & Hwang, 2001). Recommendations for Using These Tools Many universities are starting to use various computer course tools or platforms to promote online learning. These platforms, such as BlackBoard or WebCT, can be used to design either Web-based or Web-assisted courses. For several years, we have used discussion groups and chat rooms in Web-based classes but have also found that communication can be enhanced in traditional classes through use of these tools.Since more business organizations are using electronic tools, such as Lotus Notes, to facilitate group meetings, using them in the classroom helps students further prepare for their careers. However, the wise faculty member will be advised that these tools should be used judiciously. Therefore, based on our experience, the following suggestions are made to faculty who are considering the use of Web-based tools. Discussion Boards Instructors and students can compose and post messages electronically on electronic discussion boards.Both public and private discussion forums can be implemented. With many computing platforms, such as WebCT, faculty can set up public forums to start threaded discussions for the class to which the students can respond electronically. Students can use these public forums to post questions to which the entire class can respond, such as for help in finding information for the project. A project normally seems easier when the instructor is discussing it in class and few questions arise. However, students' questions occasionally occur after class or on weekends.The discussion board allows the opportunity for students to post problems asynchronously and to receive input from the class. The burden is no longer on the instructor to solve every problem as it occurs but is on the students to work with each other as well as with the instructor in solving problems. This is a tremendous lesson for students to learn to deal with problem solving in the real world. When an employer gives an employee a project or task to do, he/she expects the employee to do it on his/her own and not ask for assistance from the employer every step of the way.Students have to learn to be problem solvers on their own, and the use of electronic discussion boards helps develop that skill. The professor's role is to help get the conversation started. For example, the instructor can post a question on the public project discussion board asking at which sites people are having success finding information for the project. The students can then respond. Those students who respond in a useful manner will be rewarded, such as with a participation grade. Those students or groups who do not respond can be asked on the discussion board for their input.When students see the progress other students are making, they may be spurred to work harder. Additionally, the faculty need to check the discussion board frequently to see if any misinformation is being spread, to ensure â€Å"netiquette† is being practiced, and to restart the conversation as needed. Finally, faculty can take questions that the students ask individually and request that the students post them on the discussion board. In that way the instructor only has to respond once, and similar inquiries can then be referred to that response.This will eve ntually build a culture in the class where the instructor is not seen as the sole source for information, and the students learn to work with each other in solving problems. Additionally, instructors can create private forums to be used to divide students into groups for class exercises or for the use of asynchronous coordination of group projects in which group members cannot all meet at the same time. The instructor can visit these public and private forums to track group progress, to encourage students to help each other to solve problems, and to provid e assistance as needed after the students have tried first on their own.In the private group forums, the students are encouraged to use the board to organize group meetings, to post their research findings, and to post drafts of their work for their group members to see and make comments. The professor can encourage individual group members to post their contributions to the paper to the private forum for the other members to see and post suggestions. This would increase group collaboration in a manner that can be documented. After the group has collaborated on a draft of the project, the instructor can offer suggestions.Finally, instructors should consider requiring the groups to post progress reports on their efforts periodically during the term. These progress reports describe what the group has accomplished, what the group's plans are, if there are any problems, and if there are, how they are being addressed. The instructor should provide guidelines as to what the groups should have accomplished by the progress report dates so the students can determine if they are on track. While these reports could be submitted on paper, doing it through the discussion board makes it easier for group m

Personal and Professional Development for Business Essay

Personal and Professional Development for Business - Essay Example In the recent years, MBA programs have been construed as general education in the practice of managing rather than specialized training in the functions of business; however, Henry Mintzberg, one of the leading influential teachers of business strategy argues that â€Å"Management is, above all, a practice where art, science and craft meet†. In light of this statement, this paper aims to provide a critical analysis of the value of management education from a range of perspectives. In today’s complex and highly challenging global business environment, business leaders are predominantly engaged with the task of transforming nondescript firms into a billion dollar corporations. Tough business environment conditions and emerging trends in the traditional business world have created a knowledge gap that business schools have ardently strived to fill through management education. Through management education, business schools are seriously rethinking the concept of leadership with a special focus on the need to train the next-generation managers (Uba, 2011); the training seeks to raise a breed of next-generation managers fully equipped with knowledge and skills to deal with the emerging global challenges in the business world. The need for such training is justified by the dynamic nature of modern enterprise; traditional managers rarely had to move past the basics of what was taught and even then, the scope was often limited to their immediate environment. The need to raise a breed of next generation managers who have been equipped with the necessary tools to deal with the emerging business challenges is the underlying importance of Management education. In addition to that, management education directly correlates with business and economic development because it highlights key essential areas of focus in the global business environment. For instance, corporate social responsibility and corporate sustainability have been flagged as essential elements i n business management today thanks to Management education (Uba, 2011). Business management has taken on a much broader meaning in today’s workplace in response to globalization that has resulted into new complexities and interdependence between multinational corporations, the environment and society. Many companies have become multinationals and they are required to compete in environments radically different from the ones in which the managers were trained. For these reason, they must be flexible so they can tackle the new social political and legal challenges that will unequivocally come their way, such versatility can only achieved through intense and progressive training. Given the myriad complexities and interconnectivity at the workplace in response to globalization, business management in the 21st century tends to take on a multi-faceted approach that calls for integrative business tools. Management education provides an avenue for managers to adapt to the changes at the workplace by building their capacity to deal with emerging complexities and challenges of interconnectivity. Managers are put to task to meet their fiduciary responsibility to both customers and shareholders, while paying close attention to environmental, socio-cultural and political considerations at the workplace. The role of management education is to empower managers to execute these roles effectively and efficiently to lead their organizations into achieving optimum results and excellent success. Management education helps shape the attitudes and behaviour of business leaders through a number of ways; the most prominent way in which management education does this is through business education, research and management programmes. Management educ

Technical Writing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 9

Technical Writing - Essay Example The product’s description reflects the quality of the product through specifics and imagery. For example, the purpose of this description is to invite awe and desire of the diamond ring in the intended audience so that he or she will purchase it. The description needs to state the specific 4 C’s of the diamond, i.e. cut, clarity, color, and carat weight to properly inform the consumer and to be compared to with competitors. If the audience has this information, he or she will be able to make an informed decision of whether or not to buy the product. I would propose that Micron should immediately rewrite their descriptions, set up short workshops with sales personnel to teach them how to use the product and provide easier means of acknowledging and functioning the new features via video demonstration in the store. Darlene should recommend to Claude to become hands-on with the product as much as possible to self-teach as they wait for enhanced, appropriate instructions and descriptions from the company. Rather than drop the motto and quit selling it, Claude and the other staff members should self-teach to ensure good customer

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GPS Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

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Forensic Pathologys Role in Homicide Investigations Research Paper

Forensic Pathologys Role in Homicide Investigations - Research Paper Example Today, when death occurs that raises suspicion, a forensic investigation is conducted so as to understand the cause of death, the identity of the deceased, time, and place where the death occurred, how the death occurred, as well as the circumstances of the death (Wecht & Kaufmann, 2009). However, unlike the investigations initially conducted by coroners, forensic investigations are conducted by professionally trained medical examiners so as to establish the real cause of death. What is notable is that forensic investigation of the cause of death is multi-disciplinary that entails the collaboration of forensic pathologist, forensic scientists, crime scene investigators (CSIs), entomologists, anthropologists, as well as odontologists among other specialists (Wecht & Kaufmann, 2009). This paper will explore the roles of forensic pathologist in homicide investigations. A forensic pathologist refers to a professional medical doctor performing autopsies on people whose deaths have occurred suddenly, unexpectedly or due to poisonings or trauma (Robinson & Cina, 2011). The causes of such deaths are not easy to determine without a special postmortem investigations being conducted on the body to establish the real cause of death and the circumstances that led to the death. Generally when a death has been reported, it is the responsibility of crime scene investigators (CSIs) to move to the scene of the accident and carry out preliminary investigations as to the cause of death (Robinson & Cina, 2011). Nevertheless, it has come out that some deaths especially those involving sudden deaths resulting from homicide such as serial murders are not easy to establish without a postmortem thereby calling for forensic pathologists to carry out investigations. Therefore, one of the major roles of forensic pathologists as far as the investigation of homicide is concerned is the

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Is the Good News about Compliance Goods News about International Law - Essay Example In the case of the Guatemala and Belize, they agreed to appear before the International Court of Justice with a condition of passing a referendum on a question by October. The Court was therefore unable to convince the members of the states to decide disagreements which failed on the prosecution. This case reveals to us that the stability of the International law to handle problems faced by its members at the moment with regards to the formation of a stable coalition to prosecute such issues becomes questionable. The main contentious issue in this scenario is the conflict of interest between the member states and the jury. The leadership systems of many states especially the developing states are partial to their interests and would not like being exposed for the determination of justice. Conversely, the law is concerned with ensuring that all the provisions are met and that the judgments are made based on the facts rather than notions fostered by fallacies. A clear reflection on these issues has great effect on the decisions made by different countries. This is evident in the way the Guatemala’s did not make decisions when it came to October 2013 as agreed in the ICJ. They feared to be removed from office for being the first administration to seal acknowledgements with the Belize. Thus Guatemala acted in their favor due to the repercussions they would face after running the referendum. These early choices have great influence on countries’ subsequent decisions to comply with international treaties and decisions from legal institutions. The enforcement mechanisms of the international law takes both positive and negative forms. The positive mechanisms incorporate incentives or promises that might be in monetary forms so as to encourage compliance. There is transparency whereby there is gathering and sharing of useful information concerning the fact of issue at the basic level. The second mechanism is bureaucracy which, according to Chayes and Chayes

How Was Alexander The Great as a Leader Research Paper

How Was Alexander The Great as a Leader - Research Paper Example Having achieved this much with such a relative short life, we cannot help but wonder, â€Å"how was Alexander the Great as a leader?† To better understand how was Alexander the Great as leader, it would be necessary to know the man. Alexander the Great in brief Alexander the Great was born in royalty. He was born of a Macedonian King Philip II and Queen Olympias. He was educated by the best teachers and was taught how to read, ride, play the lyre, fight and hunt. His best education came from Aristotle, one of the greatest philosopher of all time. The training that Alexander the Great received from Aristotle had a tremendous influence in his later conquests and it has been said that it contributed much in the success of his military conquests1 (Foster 2001, 44). Alexander the Great was also exposed early on how to lead troops in combat. At age of 17, Alexander the Great already led troops towards victory against the combined forces of Athens and Thebes. At 20, he was already ki ng when his father Philip II was assasinated by his own men. He began his conquest in 334 B.C. when he commenced a 12 year journey during which he traveled 22,000 miles and conquered modern day Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India to the Indus River2 (Team Trek Series). During this campaign, he defeated armies four to five times his size as he cross deserts and 15,000 foot peaks in freezing weather, facing incredible hardships to unite the known world under one common vision3. During these conquests, he also managed to have himself named the pharaoh of Egypt and conquered all of Asia, calling himself the â€Å"Lord of Asia†4. II. The Leadership of Alexander the Great Alexander was able to achieve this feat as a result of a combination of several characteristics that distinguished him from other leaders. In addition to being trained early to become a leader and a king, Alexander had inherent personal qualities that made him conquer all kn own world during his time. As a leader, Alexander the Great was; a. Self-confident. Perhaps even extremely but it served him well. Alexander the Great truly believed that he was a descendant of the gods (i.e. Hercules) that he thought he was invincible and this was displayed in the battlefield when he led his troops. This confidence was contagious that inspired his men to have faith in themselves which was instrumental in winning battles. This was manifested in Alexander the Great’s second confrontation with the army of Darius at the mountain pass of Issus where Darius outnumbered Alexander’s army. Out of sheer faith of Alexander’s army in him, his soldiers were able to defeat Darius army in a fierce hand to hand combat5 (Cohen 1983, 50). Alexander the Great also did not accept perceptions of his environment as limitations to be accommodated. Perceived problems were reframed into alternative problems, which were then to be solved6 (Kurke 2004, 4). As a concrete example, â€Å"any special defiance, or any reputedly impossible problem, he took as a personal challenge, and fell upon it with especial ardour. The Gordian Knot yielded when he slid the yoke sideways out of it-and revealed many rope-ends, not only two7† (Burns 1965, 140). b. Visionary. According to Kurke, â€Å"truly great leaders change the world around them. They instill in their followers a cohesive identity and clear purpose8† (2004: IX). Alexander the G

Thomas Hardy- the walk analysis Essay Example for Free

Thomas Hardy- the walk analysis Essay ‘I heard a fly buzz’ explores the cliche rituals of death being interrupted by this peculiar fly and being a distraction in the room to the deceased who supposedly should be in the limelight and the main focus of the room and primarily the main focus of attention. The death rituals is the idea of the deceased having close family mourning by his or her death bed and the decease looking almost near to perfect and having some sort of angelic feel to them. The death rituals also occur in many religions and the religious believers follow the rituals very strictly. Dickinson proclaims â€Å"the stillness in the room† she describes the state of the room as being â€Å"still† this could perhaps represent the fly taking ultimate control in the room. Or maybe represents people’s sheer horror of religion and the catastrophic consequences that comes along with it. Hence why there was this stillness in the room almost as the whole world paused in terror. By Dickinson in cooperating this ‘fly’ as some sort of interruption, perhaps it symbolises ‘religion’ almost suggesting we are so focused on religion we forget that death is fast approaching and will happen to every human currently living, hence why religion is an interruption from the real world and Dickinson wants people to realise that. ‘Flies’ are normally associated with dirt and disease carriers and also have an element of an satanic feel to them, flies also suck the blood out of humans. It is like they are slowly biting away at the human soul, perhaps this is reflecting Dickinson’s ideas about religion and how they are a corruption and destructing effect to our everyday life’s and even something as small as a fly could have more relevance than religion. As religion and tradition mean’s very little to Dickinson. Dickinson uses imagery as she proclaims in the poem â€Å"And then the windows failed† referring to the fact that if flies can escape through windows and the windows ‘failed’ then the flies could not escape, perhaps suggesting as humans we cannot escape death as it is fast approaching us. Because the fly did not leave the room as the ‘windows failed’ could perhaps be reflecting religion never leaving our life’s and always having this negative hold on us and, the idea that religion can never really escape and will always be there blind sighting and brainwashing us in the real world. It is as if religion is becoming this compulsory thing that is not allowed to leave us alone and will be there on our deathbeds waiting till the very last moment of our last breath similarly to the person in the poem. However the symbolism of â€Å"failed windows† could be the cause of death of the patient perhaps the patient had some sort of illness and the body was shutting down hence why the â€Å"windows failed† as after the line she proclaims â€Å"I could not see to see† as her windows are her eyes but the illness beat her and shut down her body. Dickinson uses imagery in the line â€Å"between the light and me† we possess from this line that this person might perhaps of faced a near death experience and going through this tunnel of light approaching before their final breath of life. It is as if there whole life has flashed in front of them and they are currently under- going the last stages of life. â€Å"between the light- and me- uses dashes to represent the tunnel the person is going through or perhaps we can gain another interpretation from the line perhaps â€Å"light suggests that it is coming from heaven and she is ready to be taken. However as the sentence uses dashes she is undermining heaven and wondering if it is a place her soul will take her too after she is dead or wonder if another life will be on the cards. Onomatopoeia is used in the line â€Å"I heard a fly buzz – when I died† flies usually make noises which drives a sane person to mental instability if it carries on for long enough. As Dickinson perhaps uses the symbolism for â€Å"fly† to refer to religion (something she is not very keen on) perhaps this â€Å"buzzing noise† could be a warning or something to haunt the person. Also perhaps this peculiar noise in the room is to distinguish its territory and remind the person who is about to die, religion will never leave you and the church hymns will forever be in your presence and constantly buzzing around you until you die hence why she heard a fly buzz-when she died† Dickinson capitalizes the line â€Å"Heaves of Storm† perhaps she is declaring her battle for survival, the battle is so violent there is nothing that could possibly protect her. Capitals are normally used for the name of places and perhaps she’s in a place with â€Å"Heaves of Storm† she’s completely locked in and fighting to break free or perhaps we can gain another interpretation from this line as may be the patient feels the upmost pain and terror and is fighting for freedom within themselves and perhaps there idea of freedom could possibly be death to end the internal struggle they are currently going through whilst being alive in a world they feel they don’t belong in. In â€Å"I heard a fly buzz† Dickinson uses the common metre of 8-6-8-6 syllables which is usually used in the hymns and ballads of her poem. In stanza 3, she states â€Å"I willed my keepsakes, signed away† which perhaps referring to the fact she is giving away her materialistic items and as the line has 8 syllables which it is the longest of the lot perhaps she has lots of items to give away which aren’t personal to her heart as she â€Å"signed away† extremely quickly perhaps she realises she’s about to die and is unable to take these useless items with her and wants to get rid of them and these items perhaps reflected the items in her life and showing she doesn’t feel life is of any value to her. She also states in a six syllable metre of â€Å"what portion of me be† possessing the fact that not many of her items she is signing away mean a lot to her and only a small portion she is truly accountable for. Dickinson perhaps uses the common metre here to show big or small if you die you cannot take your â€Å"keepsakes† with you when you die hence why she â€Å"signed away†. In the six-syllable line she proclaims â€Å"Assignable and then it was â€Å"perhaps meaning she didn’t have to think twice about writing her will as she realizes death is slowly approaching for her and the quicker these items go the faster she can focus on death.

Health Promotion and Disease Prevention

Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Health Promotion is the process of motivating people and empowering communities to adapt lifestyle and behavioural changes to improve their health. This process involves various interventions to reach individuals, high-risk groups, communities, health sectors and law makers to engage in adapting behaviours relative to improved health and wellness. Disease Prevention concentrates on ways or strategies to lessen the risk of growing continual illnesses and other incidence of morbidities. It consists of different levels of prevention that involves measures to eradicate diseases, diagnose diseases, learn the causal factors and signs to look after, treatment, rehabilitation and reduction of disability to live a normal lifestyle as possible. Health promotion and disease prevention addresses different health determinants (personal, social, environmental, economic factors) that affect health status which changes manageable risk behaviours. There are different approaches for health promotion that aims to improve health by bringing change in an individuals health perspective and that of the community. These are: 1) Medical, 2) Lifestyle Behavioural, 3) Social/Political 4) Environmental, 5) Educational Empowerment. An attempt to change health perspective amongst individual is by communicating messages that is relevant to them. For a positive change to arise, people should understand why an area of concern is significant and that the practices different from their current ones need to be pursued. I. Initiatives for Disease Prevention (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Prevention) Primary Prevention It focuses on preventing the onset of the diseases. That means minimizing exposure to hazards and increase immunity/resistance to diseases that can affect an individuals health. Of all the disease prevention levels, primary prevention targets larger populations. Example: Health campaigns, encouraging children with regular tooth brushing to avoid tooth decay, improving physical activities, mass media campaigns. Increasing knowledge through education. Promote lifestyle changes. Mandating health policies (use of personal protective equipment, no smoking, liquor ban). Immunization programs. Health programs for high-risk groups (Maori, youth, children under five years, non-immune migrants). Handwashing to avoid contamination. Secondary Prevention/Early Detection It aims to detect diseases before any manifestations and early treatment to control the progress of the disease. Hence, reduce complications and preventing relapse. Interventions include early diagnosis through screening and teaching people early signs of disease and what symptoms to watch for. Example: Regular GP visits, routine blood sugar monitoring, screening tests (Pap Smear, Newborn Screening, HIV, Blood tests, Colonoscopy, Mammography), chemoprophylaxis to prevent infection (administering antibiotics) Tertiary Prevention It is concerned on rehabilitation and reduce disability for re/irreversible conditions and late stage diseases. The goal of tertiary prevention is to improve a persons quality of life, providing comfort, and reduce suffering. Example: Physical therapy, Cardiac rehabilitation following heart surgery (Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting (CABG), stroke rehabilitation, follow-up examinations to identify metastasis, support groups, hospice care, palliative care. Continuous research for better treatment. II. Initiatives for Health Promotion Approaches (Medical, Lifestyle Behavioural, Social/Political, Environmental, Educational Empowerment) Lifestyle Behavioural Approach It aims to influence high risk people of developing sedentary lifestyle to adapt healthy lifestyle to improve health. This approach implies that each individual is responsible for their health. Example: Health promotions about proper nutrition, adequate rest, increase physical activity. Smoking and substance cessation programs. Mass media campaigns. Community centres providing various physical activity programs open to locals Educational Empowerment Approach It provides people thorough information and hones their decision making skills to choose healthy living. With greater understanding of importance of health comes change in attitude followed by a change in behavior. Example: Providing education material of cause and effects of health behaviours, counseling, group discussions, health related videos, health promotion in school setting Social/Political Approach It targets group of people or community rather than individuals. It requires support from the policy makers to formulate and implement policies to promote health. The commitment of the government to promote health policies will engage the people in the implementation of the said policies. Example: No smoking policy in public areas, within school, hospital, and work premises. Increasing tax on cigarettes/tobacco and alcoholic beverages. Anti-smoking media advertisements. Designate areas where cigarettes can be sold and a policy against sales to minors. Government subsidies on Nicotine Replacement Therapy. Food labels on imported products. The need for GP prescription for access on use of certain medications. Conclusion Disease prevention compliments health promotion efforts. Prevention is more efficient and cost effective rather than treatment. Health promotion provides people increase knowledge and understanding of the significance of taking control over their health to improve wellness. When diseases are prevented, it results to prolonged longevity of life. There will be increase independence with care, less reliance to long-term treatment, less hospitalization which means less healthcare expenditure. By choosing to address on the underlying health determinants the health problems can be lessened. Morbidity and mortality can be minimized by modifying risk factors. There is a link between people and its environment, working together as a society has a greater impact on health. Health promotion is a shared responsibility to contribute on health changes to live a purposeful and enjoyable life for everyone. REFERENCES Whoint. (2017). World Health Organization. Retrieved25 January, 2017, from http://www.who.int/topics/health_promotion/en/ Ruralhealthinfoorg. (2017). Ruralhealthinfoorg. Retrieved 25 January, 2017, from https://www.ruralhealthinfo.org/community-health/health-promotion/1/definition Iwhonca. (2017). Iwhonca. Retrieved 25 January, 2017, from https://www.iwh.on.ca/wrmb/primary-secondary-and-tertiary-prevention Afmcca. (2017). Afmcca. Retrieved 25 January, 2017, from http://phprimer.afmc.ca/Part1-TheoryThinkingAboutHealth/Chapter4BasicConceptsInPreventionSurveillanceAndHealthPromotion/Thestagesofprevention Uottawaca. (2017). Uottawaca. Retrieved 25 January, 2017, from https://www.med.uottawa.ca/sim/data/Prevention_e.htm Vincesalibacom. (2017). Vincesalibacom. Retrieved 25 January, 2017, from http://vincesaliba.com/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/02_Approaches_to_Health_Promotion.22350043.pdf Slidesharenet. (2017). Slidesharenet. Retrieved 25 January, 2017, from http://www.slideshare.net/snaptite/strategies-for-promoting-health

Essay --

Christopher Pace 3-11-14 Research Paper Harriet Tubman was a woman who cared for others and she also was a hero to many blacks. She had an extremely hard life although it eventually got better for Harriet. She was a very lucky and intelligent girl. However, as a child growing up, she was small, slow and was picked on because of it. She was able to make history even though she was a slave, and for a slave she held her own for a long time enduring beatings and whippings. In the life of Harriet Tubman, her childhood was the first obstacle and there were many to follow. She was born in 1820 into the hard life of slavery. Instead of her real name, she took her mother’s name of Harriet. Her real name was Aramintia Harriet Ross and her nickname was Minty. Her childhood was hard having eight siblings besides her. She had three sisters sold to plantations near Alabama. This was also hard because she was a Christian and was supposed to forgive people for wronging her. Harriet lived in Alabama which was a very hostile slave state in the south. She was also lucky to have two parents. Harriet Tubman’s father’s name was Binate Ross and her mother’s name was Harriet. She became the youngest after her younger brother died. She was a very rebellious girl and even started a rebellion by throwing a stone at the overseer, for which she was punished by getting whipped. Her consequences were getting whipped for hours on end. She had one very hard childhood and every night she had nightmares of the horrifying treatments she was given for doing something wrong out on the farms. She was Pace #2 a tough girl becau... ...ved became fully bound citizens of the United States of America. The greatest known achievement for Harriet Tubman was her escape out of slavery. This gave other blacks courage and hopes to stand up for each other too. Another achievement was when she was able to accept that her husband left her for another woman during her quest to save slaves. It took great courage to continue the work of freeing slaves after her husband married another woman. Harriet also earned the name of conductor of the great Underground Railroad. There were many achievements she had like getting married, escaping slavery, helping others through the Underground Railroad and teaching children. She made a huge mark in the history Pace #4 of the United States and for black Americans. The main thing that she tried to accomplish during her life was to make the rest of the blacks free.

who was right :: essays papers

who was right When white men crossed the boundary of the Missouri River, it upset the balance between the pioneers and the red men. Obviously the red men were not happy and lashed out against their white oppressors. Many just saw savages, but much of the American army saw courage and honor. Was it right for members of the army who had just maintained the union of their own society, to dismember the culture of the Native Americans? I believe it was. First of all, the army did not enjoy having to push the Indians back from the lands that the white people wanted, but then they also had to try and convert them to Christianity. The Indians retaliated against the army, but it was the United States government itself that broke the treaties that promised the Indians land and then expected the army to keep the peace through mutual trust. Military action appeared to be the only way to keep white civilians from complaining about Indian attacks on the white man's newly acquired land. An Army official named Sheridan received reports each week about the horrendous acts of violence caused by the red man. It was then that famous phrase was created "the only good Indians I ever saw were dead." There were many men like Sheridan who hated the Indians and looked down upon their senseless acts of violence. However, men like William Tecumseh Sherman had a deep respect and admiration for the enemy and his fighting skill. In fact, both Sheridan and Sherman confessed to pity and compassion for the Native Americans they had set out to destroy. Even men like General Nelson A. Miles who had personal reasons for revenge against the enemy showed a deep respect, almost reverence, for the red man. Colonel John Gibbon proclaimed that the record of white hostility and treachery would force any man to fight. Gibbon raised more questions about his own culture than he answered about his enemies. To many soldiers who had the same ideals as Gibbon, the courage and bearing of the red man suggested a purer way of life before the coming of the white men. Some men like General George Crook became more of an Indian than some Apaches. Crook's argument about the Indian violence was that their nature is responsive to treatment which assures him that it is based upon justice, truth, honesty, and common sense.

Napoleon Bonaparte Essay -- European History Corsica Essays

Napoleone Buonaparte Napoleon was born on August 15, 1769 in Ajaccio, Corsica, and was given the name Napoleone Buonaparte. He was the second of eight children of Carlo and Letizia Buonaperte, both of the Corsican-Italian gentry. Before Napoleone, no Buonaparte had ever been a professional soldier. His father Carlo, was a lawyer who had fought for Corsican independence, but after the French occupied the island in 1768, he served as a prosecutor and a judge and entered the French aristocracy as a count. Through his father's influence, Napoleone was educated at the expense of King Louis XVI, at Brienne and the Ecole Militaire, in Paris. Napoleone graduated in 1785, at the age of 16, and joined the artillery as a second lieutenant. After the revolution began in France, he became a lieutenant colonel (1791) in the Corsican National Guard. However, when Corsica declared independence in 1793, Buonaperte, a Republican, and a French patriot, fled to France with his family. He was assigned, as captain, to an army besieging Toulon, a naval base that was aided by a British fleet, while in revolt against the republic. It was here that Napoleone Buonaperte officially changed his name to Napoleon Bonaparte, feeling that it looked "more French". It was here too that Napoleon replaced a wounded artillery general, and seized ground where his guns could drive the British fleet from the harbor, and Toulon fell. As a result of his accomplishments, Bonapatre was promoted to brigadier general at the age of 24. In 1795, he saved the revolutionary government by dispersing an insurgent mob in Paris. Then in 1796 he married Josephine de Beauharnais, the mother of two children and the widow of an aristocrat guillotined in the Revolution. Early in his life Napoleon was showing signs of militaristic geniuses and knowledge for formidable strategy. It was through the application of his skills, and a revolutionary style of spontaneous fighting styles than gave Napoleon the opportunities, which he jumped at, making his the great military leader he is known as today. Latter in1796, Napoleon became commander of the French army in Italy. He defeated four Austrian generals in succession, each at impossible odds, and forced Austria and it's allies to make peace. The Treaty of Campo Formio provided that France keep most of its conquests. In northern Italy he f... ...ropean countries. Napoleon was a driven man, never secure, never satisfied. "Power is my mistress" (VI pg. 176), he said. His life was work-centered; even his social activities had a purpose. He could bear amusements or vacations only briefly. His tastes were for coarse food, bad wine, and for cheap tobacco. He could be hypnotically charming for a needed purpose of course. He had intense loyalties to his family and old associates. Even so, nothing or nobody, were allowed to interfere with his work. Napoleon was sometimes a tyrant and always an authorian. But one who believed, however in ruling by mandate of the people, expressed on plebiscites. He was also a great enlightened monarch-a civil executive of enormous capacity who changed French institutions and tried to reform the intuitions of Europe and give the Continent a common law. Few historians deny that he was a military genius. At St. Helena, he said "Waterloo will erase the memory of all my victories." (VII pg.345) he was wrong; for better or worse, he is best remembered as a general, not for his enlightened government, but surely the latter must be counted if he is justly to be called "Napoleon the Great".

Cause And Effects Of Soil Erosion Environmental Sciences Essay

The Latin word erodere, intending â€Å" to gnaw away † is the beginning of the word eroding ( Roose, 1996 ) . Soil Erosion is the physical remotion of surface soil by assorted agents, including falling raindrops, H2O fluxing over the dirt profile and gravitative pull ( Lal 1990 ) . The Soil Science Society of America defines eroding as â€Å" the have oning off of the land surface by running H2O, air current, ice or other geological agents, including such procedures as gravitative weirdo † ( SCSA, 1982 ) . Physical eroding involves the withdrawal and transit of indissoluble dirt atoms ( sand, silt and organic affair ) . Removal of soluble stuff as dissolved substances is called chemical eroding and this possibly caused by surface overflow or subsurface flow where the H2O moves from one bed to another within the dirt profile ( Lal 1990 ) . Harmonizing to ASCE, 1975, the physical procedures in dirt eroding include withdrawal of dirt atoms, their transit and subsequent deposition of dirt deposits descent by raindrop impact and overflow over the dirt surface. Rainfall is the most of import detaching agent ( Morgan and Davidson 1986 ; Lal, 1990 ) followed by overland flow in entraining dirt atoms ( Lal 1990 ) . The procedure of dirt eroding occurs in three chief stairss, withdrawal of dirt atoms, transit and deposition of dirt atoms downslope by raindrop impact and overflow over the dirt surface ( ASCE 1975 ; Morgan and Davidson, 1986, Lal 1990 ) followed by overland flow in entraining dirt atoms ( Lal, 1990 ) . Soil eroding reduces soil productiveness by physical loss of surface soil, decrease in rooting deepness and loss of H2O. In contrast dirt, dirt depletion means loss or diminution of dirt birthrate due to harvest remotion or remotion of foods by eluviations from H2O go throughing through the dirt profile ( Lal, 1990 ) . Sedimentation nevertheless, causes off site effects like debasement of basins, accretion of silts in H2O reservoirs and entombment of low-lying productive countries and other jobs ( Lal, 1990 ) . Sediments is the chief cause of pollution and eutrophication ( Lal, 1990 ) . Harmonizing to Lal 1990, dirt debasement may be caused by accelerated dirt eroding, depletion thr ough intensive land usage, impairment in dirt construction, alterations in dirt pH, leaching, salt accretion, construct up of toxic elelments such as aluminium or Zn, inordinate flood taking to cut down dirt conditions and hapless aeration. Soil Erosion is the most serious and least reversible signifier of land debasement ( Lal, 1977 ; El-Swaify, Dangler and Amstrong, 1982 ) . Soil eroding and dirt loss, harmonizing to Lal ( 1990 ) have inauspicious effects on agribusiness because they deplete the dirt ‘s productiveness and decrease the resourse base.2.2 Soil Erosion ProcessGeologic eroding can be caused by a figure of natural agents including rainfall, fluxing H2O and ice, air current and the the mass motion of dirt organic structures under the action of gravitation which cause the disentangled or dissolved crude and stone stuffs to be removed from a topographic point and finally deposited to a new location ( Lal,1990 ; Morgan and Davidson, 1986 ) . The Soil Science Society of America ( SCSA, 1982 ) described geologic eroding as â€Å" the normal or natural eroding caused by geologic procedures moving over long periods and ensuing in the have oning off of mountains, the edifice up of inundation fields, coastal f ields. Etc. † The slow and constructive natural dirt eroding procedure has been significantly accelerated by human activities of hapless agriculture patterns, overgrazing, land glade for building, logging and excavation ( Lo, 1990 ) . Accelerated eroding non merely affects the dirt but besides the environment and is the primary cause of dirt debasement ( Lal, 1990 ) . Agribusiness has been identified as the primary cause of accelerated dirt eroding ( Pimentel, 1976 ) .2.3 Soil Characteristics in the Torrid zonesExtremes of clime and broad assortment of parent stuffs cause great contrast of dirt belongingss in the Torrid Zones from dirts in other temperate parts. In the Torrid Zones dirts are extremely variable and diverse like the flora ( Sanchez and Buoi, 1975 ; Van Wambeke, 1992 ) . The chief dirt types are alfisols, oxisols, ultisols and inceptisols ( El-Swaify, 1990 ) . Tropical dirts low in weatherable minerals and basic cations ( Na, Ca, Mg, and K ) resulted from uninter rupted weathering of parent stuffs ( Lo, 1990 ) . The ability of these dirts to maintain works foods is mostly dependent on the humus content found in works biomass and the organic affair ( Rose,1993 ) . The inaction of dirt mineral components ( china clay and sesquioxides ) in these dirts, causes lack in harvest foods, lowers the capacity to retain basic cations, bounds active relationship with organic affair and overly immobilizes phosphates and related anions, a status which are extremely toxic to works roots ( Lo, 1990 ) . Crop production in tropical dirts are constrained by chiefly aluminum- derived dirt sourness and sterility but by and large their physical belongingss are favorable ( El-Swaify, 1990 ) . Tropic dirts have moderate to high permeableness under natural conditions, but susceptible to quenching and development of impermeable crust upon action of raindrops and as a consequence overflow additions with uninterrupted cultivation ( Lal, 1982 ) . This crusting cause undi stinguished decrease of filtration rate, increasing H2O overflow which leads to acceleration of dirt eroding ( Falayl and Lal, 1979 ) . It is of import to observe nevertheless that heavy and intense rains cause terrible eroding in the Torrid Zones ( Morgan, 1974 ; Wilkinson 1975 ; Amezquita and Forsythe, 1975 ; Lal 1976 ; Aina, Lal and Taylor, 1977 ; Bois, 1978 ; Sheng 1982 ) .2.4 Soil Erosion on Steep SlopeHarmonizing to Lal 1990, Steeplands refer to lands with a incline gradient greater than 20 % . It is of import to observe nevertheless that level rippling lands have a great potency for harvest production and agricultural development. Due to the possibility of dirt eroding and the job of mechanisation, the steep countries are considered fringy for agribusiness production ( Lal, 1990 ) . The hard topography in steepland agribusiness restricts mechanisations of operations therefore, cut downing all agricultural activities ( land readying, cultivation and harvest home ) , restricting the husbandman in graduated table and efficiency. Input signals such as fertiliser and pesticides have to be carried manually by the husbandman. As a resulted they are used barely. Perceptibly any addition in the usage of these agricultural inputs will ensue in diminution in he husbandmans net incomes from the by and large lower agricultural field ( Benvenuti, 1988 ) . For all these grounds steepland husbandmans tend to concentrate in high value harvest production of limited graduated table ( Ahmad, 1987 ; Ahmad 1990 ) . It is of import to observe nevertheless that husbandmans prefer steepslopes due to cultural manus cultivation, seting and reaping can be done in an unsloped manner ( Williams and Walter, 1988 ) . Futher more subsistence husbandmans are found on steep inclines because of mo re favorable environmental conditions such as lower temperatures, reduced diseases and higher dependability of rainfall. ( Hurni, 1988 ) . In the Torrid Zones, remotion of forest flora causes inordinate leaching and accelerated dirt alimentary loss. Being extremely weathered dirt types, their contained minerals by and large have hapless ability to retain occluded foods against leaching. Clay soils with high residualmiron contents are considered superior in opposition to runoff caused dirt eroding ; therefore, dirts emanated from basic pyrogenic stones and ruddy dirts developed from chalky stones are strongly aggregated due to the cementing belongings of Fe oxides, hence, dirt eroding is expected to be less than for most other dirts. Besides soils developed from fragmental volcanic stuffs with andic belongingss are immune to dirty eroding ( Sheng, 1986 ; Ahmad, 1987 ; Ahmad, 1990 ; Lal, 1990 ) . Soils formed from shales, schists, phyillites and sandstones are considered extremely erodible. Dirts produced from these stones are high in both sand or silt fraction, and clay minerals and Fe oxides are by and large deficient a s cementing agents for a stable-structured dirt. These parent stuffs are by and large rich in Muscovite occurring in all dirt particle-size fractions. Micah-rich dirts are weak-structured, and therefore raindrops can easy free the weak sums, while the clay fraction dispersed in H2O. The ensuing isinglass flakes settling on their level axes in the H2O movie on the dirt surface causes dirt crusting. The formation of dirt crusts further restricts H2O entry into the dirt ( Ahmad and Robin, 1971 ; Sumner, 1995 ) , ensuing to disposal of a much greater volume of overflow H2O, a status which leads to farther decomposition of dirt sums and conveyance of colloidal dirt stuff ( Ahmad, 1987 ; Ahmad 1990 ) . Soil crust restricts gaseous exchange taking to anaerobic dirt conditions, denitrification, toxic effects due to ethylene production, and mechanical electric resistance to seedling outgrowth ( Ahmad 1987 ; Ahmad, 1990 ) . Steep incline cultivation can do certain instability in the ecological system with both onsite and offsite damaging impacts ( El-Swaify, Garnier and Lo, 1987 ) . Soil, clime, land usage and farming systems affect the extent and the grade of badness of dirt eroding. However, irrespective of dirt and climatic conditions, intensively used steeplands in dumbly populated parts experience terrible dirt eroding job. Land usage influences the grade of badness of dirt eroding on steeplands. Uncontrollable graze or over graze, exensive and opprobrious cultivation, diversified cropping are responsible for terrible dirt eroding in unprotected cultivable lands ( Roose, 1988 ; Liao et Al 1988 ) . Ahmad ( 1987 ; 1990 ) reportd soil loss of about 120 t0 180 metric tons per hectare in Tobago Trinidad. In Australia, one-year dirt loss of 200 t/ha to 328 t/ha has ben reported from inclining sugar cane plantations in cardinal and north Queensland ( Sallaway, 1979 ; Mathews and Makepeace 1981 ) . There are two types of dirt eroding associated with the Caribbean part, land slipping and gullying. Land slipping is a manifestation of mass motion associated with steepland agribusiness and the badness being strongly influenced by the parent stuffs. Land glade ( illustration deforestation ) and harvest production can act upon land stealing peculiarly in the early part of the moisture season when the cleared dirt moistures faster due to impregnation of the dirt above stone. Serious disruptions, harvest loss and devastation of any mechanical anti eroding devices can ensue from this signifier of mass motions. Due to drastic alterations in hydrological conditions experienced by land of course prone already to stealing and cleared for agribusiness for the first clip land slippage would be of common experience ( Ahmad 1987 ; Ahmad 1990 ) . Gullying is another common signifier of dirt eroding that occurs on steep land bcause of the terrain involved. This is more common on flaxen dirts, volcanic dirts and vertisols, which are all porous stuffs. Soils easy attain concentrated conditions upon the rapid entry of H2O, accordingly interrupting the stuff and finally, taking to the formation of gullies. Agricultural activities enables this dirt eroding in steeplands by leting rapid dirt wetting upon the start of the moisture season. Farming activities though inappropriately oriented field boundaries, pes paths and the deficiency of proviso for disposal of surface H2O are some chief causes of gullying, even on dirts non prone to this tpe of steepland dirt eroding ( Ahmad 1987 ; Ahmad 1990 ) . Since steeplands are traditionally considered fringy for agricultural harvest production, most research on dirt eroding and dirt preservation has been done on either level land or ‘ rolled land with a maximal incline of approximately 20 % ‘ ( Lal, 1988 ) .2.5 Factors Affecting Soil ErosionThe causes of dirt eroding have been intensively discussed during the past 40 old ages. Soil eroding is a natural procedure that is enhanced by human activity ( Richter, 1998 ) and occurs in all landscapes and under different land utilizations. In add-on to human activities, dirt eroding procedures are besides caused by morphometric features of the land surface, the erosive forces of rainfall and the erodibility of dirts and dirt surfaces. When rainwater reaches the dirt surface it will either come in the dirt or run off. Runoff occurs when the rainfall strength exceeds the infiltration capacity of the dirt. Water eroding is the consequence of the scattering action of rain beads, the transporting power of H2O and besides the exposure of the dirt to scattering and motion ( Baver and Gardner, 1972 ) . The effects of dirt eroding is besides classified: definition of gullies and account of gully development is given by Morgan ( 1996 ) , every bit good as Hudson ( 1995 ) who to boot focuses on single instances of the development of gullies. Toy et Al ( 2002 ) give elaborate definitions of dirt eroding characteristics and procedures such as sheet eroding and inter-rill eroding, rill eroding, every bit good as passing and lasting gully eroding. Rill erodibility depends both straight and indirectly on dirt belongingss such as majority denseness, organic C and clay content, clay mineralogy, cations in the exchange composite, dirt pH and experimental conditions such as wet content, aging of prewetted dirt and quality of gnawing H2O ( Rapp,1998 ) . Govers ( 1990 ) found that overflow eroding resisitance of a loamy stuff was highly sensitive to fluctuation in the initial wet content and to a lesser extent to alterations in majority denseness. The procedure of H2O eroding can be separated into two constituents, rivulet and interrill eroding ( Young and Onstad, 1978 ) . Interrill eroding ( sheet eroding ) is chiefly caused by raindrop impact and removes dirt in a thin about unperceivable bed ( Foster, 1989 ) . In interril eroding the flow of H2O is by and large unconfined, except between dirt balls and screens much of the dirt surface. As the speed of flow increases the H2O incises into the dirt and rivulets signifiers ( Evans,1980 ) . Rill eroding begins when the gnawing capacity of the flow at some point exceeds the ability of the dirt atoms to resistant withdrawal by flow ( Meyer cited by Rapp, 1998 ) . Soil is detached by headcut progress from knickpoints ( De Ploey, 1989 ; Bryan, 1990 ) , rill slide shedding and hydraulic shear emphasis ( Foster cited by Rapp, 1998 ) every bit good as by slouching by underselling of side walls and scour hole formation ( Van Liew and Saxton, 1983 ) . These procedures are normally combined into a withdrawal anticipation equation as a map of mean shear emphasis ( Foster cited by Rapp, 1998 ) . When the rivulets develop in the landscape, a three to five fold addition in the dirt loss commonly occurs ( Moss, Green and Hutka 1982 and Meyer and Harmon 1984 ) .2.5.1 Vegetative FactorsThe effects of flora can be classified into three catergories: The interception of raindrops by the canopy ( D'Huyvetter, 1985 ) . Two effects are associated with this. First, portion of the intercepted H2O will vaporize from the foliages and roots and therefore cut down overflow. Second, when raindrops strike the flora, the energy of the beads is dissipated and there is no direct impact on the dirt surface. The interception per centum depends on the type of harvest, the growing phase and the figure of workss per unit country. A well distributed, near turning surface vegetive screen will decelerate down the rate at which H2O flows down the incline and will besides cut down concentration of H2O ( D'Huyvetter, 1985 ) . As a consequence, it will diminish the erosive action of running H2O. There is besides the consequence of roots and biological activity on the formation of stable aggregrates, which consequences in a stable dirt construction and increased infiltration that reduces overflow and decreases eroding ( D'Huyvetter, 1985 ) . Increased permeableness besides reduces eroding as a consequence of in increased H2O infiltration due to better drainage. Stables aggregrates in the surface soil besides counteract crusting.2.5.2 Rainfall FactorsRaindrop size, form, continuance of a storm and weave velocity interactions controls the erosive power of rainfall ( D'Huyvetter, 1985 ) . The erosivity of rainfall is expressed in footings of kinetic energy and is affected by assorted factors. Harmonizing to Wischmeier and Smith ( 1965 ) , the strength of rainfall is closely related tot vitamin E kinetic energy, harmonizing to the arrested development equation E = 1.213 + 0.890 log I Where E = the kinetic energy ( kg.m/m2.mm ) I = rainfall strength ( mm/h ) Raindrop size, distribution and form all influence the energy impulse of a rainstorm. Laws and Parson ( 1943 ) reported an addition in average bead size with addition in rain strength. The relationship between average bead size ( D50 ) and rainfall is given by: D50:2.23 I 0.182 ( inch per hr ) . The average size of rain beads increases with low and average strength autumn, but declines somewhat for high strength rainfall ( Gerrard, 1981 ) . The kinetic energy of an rainfall event is besides related to the speed of the raindrops at the clip of impact with the dirt ( D'Huyvetter, 1985 ) . The distance through which the rain bead must fall to keep terminal speed is a map of bead size. The kinetic energy of a rainstorm is related to the terminal speed harmonizing to the equation: Ek = IV2/2 Where Ek = energy of the rain storm I = Intensity V= Velocity of raindrop before impact Ellison ( 1945 ) developed an equation demoing that the relationship between the dirt detached, terminal speed, bead diameter and rainfall strength: E = KV4.33 d1.07 I0.63 Where E = comparative sum of dirt detached K = dirt invariable V = speed of raindrops ( ft/sec ) vitamin D = diameter of raindrops ( millimeter ) I = rainfall strength 2.5.2.1 Effect of rainfall strength on overflow and dirt loss Harmonizing to Morgan ( 1995 ) , soil loss is closely related to rainfall partially through the detaching power of raindrops striking the dirt surface and the part of rain to runoff. If rainfall strength is less than the infiltration capacity of the dirt, no surface overflow occurs and the infiltration rate would be the rainfall strength ( Horton, 1945 ) as sited by Morgan ( 1995 ) . If the rainfall strength exceeds the infiltration capacity, the infiltration rate peers the infiltration capacity and the extra rainfall signifiers surface overflow. Harmonizing to Morgan ( 1995 ) , when the dirt is unsaturated, the dirt matric potency is negative and H2O is held in the capillaries due to matrics suction. For this ground, under saturated conditions littorals may bring forth runoff really rapidly although their infiltration capacity is non exceeded by the rainfall strength. Intensity partly controls hydraulic conduction, increasing the rainfall strength may do conduction to lift so that although overflow may hold formed quickly at comparatively low rainfall strength, higher rainfall strengths do non ever produce greater overflow ( Morgan, 1995 ) . This mechanism explains the ground why infiltration rates sometimes increase with rainfall strengths ( Nassif and Wilson, 1975 ) .2.5.3 Soil FactorsHarmonizing to Baver et Al, ( 1972 ) , the consequence of dirt belongingss on H2O eroding can be in two ways: First, certain belongingss determine the rate at which rainfall enters the dirt. Secondly, some belongingss affect the opposition of the dirt against scattering and eroding during rainfall and overflow. The atom size distribution is an of import dirt belongings with respects to erodibility. Generally it is found that erodible dirts have a low clay content ( D'Huyvetter, 1985 ) . Soils with more than 35 % clay are frequently regarded as being cohesive and holding stable sums which are immune to scattering by raindrops ( Evans, 1980 ) . Evans besides stated that littorals and harsh loamy littorals are non easy eroded by H2O due to its high infiltration rate. In contrast dirts with a high silt or all right sand fraction are really erodible. Erodibility of dirt additions with the proportion of sums less than 0.5mm ( Bryan, 1974 ) . Factors which contribute to aggregate stableness include organic affair content, root secernments, gluey gels formed by interrupt down of organic affair, the binding of atoms by sesquioxides and the presence of a high Ca concentration on the exchange sites of the colloids alternatively of a high Na content ( D'Huyvetter, 1985 ) . The deepness of eroding is determined by the dirt profile ( Evans, 1980 ) . Harmonizing to Evans dirt skylines below the A skyline or plough bed are frequently more compact and less erodible. The texture and chemical composing of the sub surface skyline can besides hold an inauspicious consequence. Normally deep gullies can be cut if the parent stuff is unconsolidated. If immune bedrock is near the surface merely rills will develop. Soil rich in surface rocks are less susceptible to eroding ( Lamb, 1950 and Evans, 1980 ) . Rocks protect the dirt against eroding and besides increase the infiltration of the streamlined H2O into the dirt. The antecedent dirt wet and the surface raggedness are both regarded by Evans ( 1980 ) as of import dirt factors impacting eroding. The ability of a dirt to accept rainfall depends on the wet content at the clip of the rainfall event. 2.5.3.1 Factors impacting aggregative stableness Dirt construction is determined by the form and size distribution of sums. Aggregrate size and strengthe determine the physical belongingss of a dirt and its susceptibleness to breakdown due to H2O forces. Their stableness will hold a decisive consequence on dirt physical belongingss ( Lynch and Bragg, 1985 ) . The chief binding stuffs giving stable sums in air dry province are the pasting agents in organic affair ( Chaney and Swift, 1984 ; Tisdale and Oades, 1982 ) and sesquioxides ( Goldberg and Glaubic, 1987 ) . 2.5.3.1.1 Aluminium and Iron Oxides The dirt used by Kemper and Koch ( 1966 ) contained comparatively small free Fe, although it did lend to aggregrate stableness. Their informations show a crisp addition of free Fe from 1 to 3 % . Goldberg and Glaubic ( 1987 ) concluded that Al-oxides were more effectual than Fe-oxides in stabilising dirt construction. Al-oxides have a greater proportion of sub-micrometer size atoms in a sheet signifier as opposed to the spherical signifier of Fe-particles. Shainberg, Singer and Janitzky ( 1987 ) compared the consequence of aluminum and Fe oxides on the hydraulic conduction of a flaxen dirt. 2.5.3.1.2 Organic Matter Organic affair can adhere dirt atoms together into stable dirt sums. The stabilising consequence of organic affair is good documented. Little elaborate information is available on the organic affair content required to sufficiently beef up sums with ESP values greater than 5 or 7, and incorporating illite or montmorrillionite, so as to forestall their scattering in H2O ( Smith, 1990 ) . High humus content makes the dirt less susceptible to the unfavorable influence of Na ( Van den Berg, De Boer, Van der Malen, Verhoeven, Westerhof and Zuur, 1953 ) . Kemper and Koch ( 1966 ) besides found that aggregative stableness increased with an addition in the organic affair content of dirts. A maximal addition of aggregative stableness was found with up to 2 % organic affair, after which aggregative stableness increased really small with farther additions in organic affair content.2.5.3 Slope FactorsSlope features are of import in finding the sum of overflow and eroding ( D'Huyvetter, 1985 ) . As slope gradient additions, overflow and eroding normally increases ( Stern, 1990 ) . At low inclines due to the low overland flow speeds, withdrawal of dirt atoms from the dirt surface into the H2O bed is due to detachment entirely ( Stern, 1990 ) . Additionally, at low incline gradients, atoms are splashed into the air in random waies unlike the instance with steeply inclining land where down incline splash occurs ( Watson and Laflen, 1985 ) . As incline gradient additions, the ability for surface overflow to entrain and transport deposits increases quickly until the entrainment by the surface overflow becomes dominant lending to sediment conveyance ( Stern, 1990 ) . Foster, Meyer and Onstad ( 1976 ) presented a conceptual theoretical account that showed that at lower inclines, interill conveyance determined eroding, while at steeper inclines, raindrop withdrawal determined it. Th unvarying bed features of sheet flow conveyance tend to be replaced by channels because of instability and turbulent flow effects ( Moss, Green and Hutka, 1982 ) . There are many empirical relationships associating dirt conveyance by surface wash to incline length and incline gradient. Zingg ( 1940 ) showed that eroding varied harmonizing to the equation: S = X1.6 tanB1.4 Where S = dirt conveyance cm/yr Ten = incline length ( m ) B = incline gradient ( % ) Surveies conducted by Gerrard ( 1981 ) , showed that plane and convex inclines did non differ significantly in the sum of dirt lost by surface overflow, but concave inclines were less eroded. Some research workers such as Zingg ( 1940 ) and Mc Cool et Al ( 1987 ) indicated that dirt eroding additions exponentially with addition in slope gradient. The relationship is indicated after Zing ( 1940 ) by: Tocopherol = aSb where Tocopherol is the dirt eroding, S is the incline gradient ( % ) and a and B are empirical invariables. The value of B scopes from 1.35 to 2.0. The other relationship between eroding and incline gradient for inter-rill eroding is given by Mc Cool et Al ( 1987 ) E = a wickedness B Q+C Q is the incline angle in grades A, B and C are empirical invariables. However, even if the consequence of incline gradient on eroding is good recognized, several surveies indicate that the power relationship between incline gradient and dirt loss over predicts interrill eroding rate by every bit much as two or more times ( Torri, 1996 ; Fox and Bryan, 1999 ) , and the relationship is better described as linear.2.8 Soil Erosion Impacts2.8.1 Soil Physical Properties Progressive dirt eroding increases the magnitude of dirt related restraints for harvest production. These restraints can be physical, chemical and biological. The of import physical restraints caused by eroding are reduced rooting deepness, loss of dirt H2O hive awaying capacity ( Schertz et al 1984 ; Sertsu, 2000 ) , crusting and dirt compression and hardening of plinthite ( Lal, 1988 ) . Erosion besides consequences in the loss of clay colloids due to discriminatory remotion of all right atoms from the dirt surface ( Fullen and Brandsma, 1995 ) . The loss of clay influences soil tilth and consistence. Exposed undersoil is frequently of monolithic construction and harder consistence than the aggregative surface dirt ( Lal, 1988 ) . Development of rivulets and gullies may alter the micro-relief that may do usage of farming machinery hard. Another consequence of eroding is that the manangement and timing of farm operations. 2.8.2 Soil Chemical Properties Soil eroding reduces the birthrate position of dirts ( Morgan, 1986 ; Williams et al. , 1990 ) . Soil chemical restraints and nutritionary jobs related to dirty eroding include low CEC, low works foods ( NPK ) and trace elements ( Lal, 1988 ; Fullen and Brandsma, 1995 ) . Massy et Al ( 1953 ) reported an mean loss of 192 kilograms of organic affair, 10.6 kilogram of N and 1.8kg per hour angle on a Winsconsin dirts with 11 % incline. Sharpley and Smith ( 1990 ) reported that the average one-year loss of entire P in overflow from P fertilized water partings is tantamount to an norm of 15 % , 12 % and 32 % of the one-year fertiliser P applied to wheat, assorted harvest grass and peanut – sorghum rotary motion patterns severally. Researchers ( Massy et al 1953 ; Lal, 1975 ) have besides reported extended loss of N in scoured deposits. 2.8.3 Productiveness Quantifying the effects on harvest outputs is a hard undertaking. It involves the rating of interactions between dirt belongingss, harvest features and clime. The effects are besides cumulative and non observed until long after accelerated eroding begins. The grade of dirt eroding ‘s effects on harvest output depends on dirt profile features and direction systems. It is hard to set up a direct relationship between rates of dirt eroding and eroding induced dirt debasement on the one manus and harvest output on the other ( Lal, 1988 ) . It is good known that dirt eroding can cut down harvest outputs through loss of foods, structural debasement and cut down of deepness and H2O keeping capacity ( Timilin et al, 1986 ; Lal,1988 ) . Loss of production in scoured dirt further degrades its productiveness which in bend accelerates soil eroding. The cumulative consequence observed over a long period of clip may take to irreversible loss of productiveness in shoal dirts with hard-boiled plinthite or in dirts that respond to expensive direction and extra inputs ( Lal,1988 ) . 2.8.4 Off Site Effects of Soil Erosion. Effectss of eroding include siltation of rivers, harvest failure at low lying countries due to deluging, pollution of waterbodies due to the assorted chemicals brought by the overflow from different countries. Several surveies reported the significance of the off site effects of dirt eroding on land debasement ( eg. Wall and ven Den,1987 ; Lo, 1990 ; Robertson and Colletti, 1994 ; Petkovic et Al, 1999 ) Rainwater washes off stuffs that originate from fertilisers and assorted biocides ( antifungals, insect powders, weedkillers and pesticides ) which are applied in big concentrations. They reappear in greatr measures in the hydrosphere polluting and polluting the H2O environment ( Zachar,1982 ; Withers, and Lord, 2002 ; Verstraeten and Poesen, 2002 ) . Chemical pollution of H2O chiefly by organic affair from farm Fieldss causes rapid eutrophication in waterways ( Zachar, 1982 ; Zakova et Al, 1993 ; Lijklema, 1995 ) .2.8.5 Soil Erosion ModelsModeling dirt eroding is the procedure of mathematically depicting dirt atom withdrawal, conveyance and deposition on land surfaces ( Approaching et al, 1994 ) . Erosion theoretical accounts are used as prognostic tools for measuring dirt loss and undertaking planning. They can besides be used for understanding eroding procedures and their impacts ( Approaching et al 1994 ) . There are three chief types of theoretical accounts, empirical or statist ical theoretical accounts, conceptual theoretical accounts and physically based theoretical accounts ( Morgan 1995, Approaching et Al 1994, Merritt et al 2003 ) . It is of import to observe nevertheless that there is no crisp difference among them. 2.8.5.1 Physically Based Models These theoretical accounts are based on work outing cardinal physical equations depicting watercourse flow and deposit and associated alimentary coevalss in a specific catchment ( Merritt et al. , 2003 ) . They are developed to foretell the spacial distribution of overflow and deposit over land surfaces during single storms in add-on to number overflow and dirt loss ( Morgan, 1995 ) . Physically based theoretical accounts are besides called procedure based theoretical accounts ( Morgan, 1995 ) as they rely on empirical equations to find eroding procedures. These theoretical accounts use a peculiar differential equation known as the continuity equation which is a statement of preservation of affair as it moves through infinite over clip. The common physically based theoretical accounts used in H2O quality surveies and eroding include: The Areal Non-Point Source Watershed Environment Response Simulation ( ANSWERS ) ( Beasley et al. , 1980 ) , Chemical Runoff and Erosion from Agricultur al Management Systems ( CREAMS ) ( Knisel, 1980 ) , Griffith University Erosion System Template ( GUEST ) ( Misra and Rose, 1996 ) , European Soil Erosion Model ( EUROSEM ) ( Morgan, 1998 ) , Productivity, Erosion and Runoff, Functions to Evaluate Conservation Techniques ( PERFECT ) ( Littleboy et al. , 1992 ) and Water Erosion Prediction Project ( WEPP ) ( Laflen et al. , 1991 ) . 2.8.5.2 Empirical Models These theoretical accounts are based chiefly on observations and are normally statistical in nature. They are based on inductive logic, and by and large are applicable merely to those conditions for which the parametric quantities have been calibrated ( Approaching et al. , 1994, Merritt et al. , 2003 ) . The chief focal point of these theoretical accounts have been in foretelling mean dirt loss although some extensions to sediment output have been developed ( Williams, 1975 as quoted by Approaching et al.,1994 ) . Empirical theoretical accounts are by and large based on the premise that the implicit in conditions remain unchanged for the continuance of the survey period. They are non event responsive and disregard the procedure of rainfall – overflow in the countries being modeled. Empirical theoretical accounts are often used in penchant to the more complex theoretical accounts and are peculiarly utile as first measure in placing beginnings of deposit and alimentary coevalss ( Merritt et al.,2003 ) . Among the normally used theoretical accounts are: The Universal Soil Loss Equation ( USLE ) ( Wischmeier and Smith, 1978 ) , Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation ( RUSLE ) ( Renard et al. , 1994 ) and the Soil Loss Estimation Model for Southern Africa ( SLEMSA ) ( Etwell, 1978 ) . 2.8.5.3 Conceptual Models These theoretical accounts are based on on spatially lumped signifiers of H2O and sediment continuity equations ( Lane et al. , 1988 in Approaching et al. , 1994 ) . They intend to include a general description of catchment procedures, without including the particular inside informations of procedure interactions which would necessitate elaborate catchment information ( Merritt et al. , 2003 ) . These theoretical accounts can supply an indicant of the qualitative and quantitative effects of land usage alterations, without necessitating big sums of spatially and temporally distributed information. The chief characteristic that distinguishes these conceptual theoretical accounts from empirical theoretical accounts is that the conceptual theoretical account, whilst they tend to be aggregated, they still reflect the hypothesis about the procedures regulating the system behavior ( Merritt et al.,2003 ) . The Agricultural Non-Point Source Model ( AGNPS ) ( Young et al. , 1989 ) , Agricultu ral Catchment Research Unit ( ACRU ) ( Schulze, 1995 ) , Hydrologic Simulation Program Fortran ( HSPF ) ( Walton and Hunter, 1996 ) , and Simuator for Water Resources in Rural Basins ( SWRRB ) ( Arnold et al. , 1990 ) are among the theoretical accounts ( Merritt et al. , 2003 ) used in eroding and H2O quality surveies.2.7 Soil Erosion in the CaribbeanSoil Erosion in the Caribbean in chiefly affected by two types of factors, climatic factors and topographic factors. It can be seen that the dirts of the islands of the West indies should be capable to a great trade of eroding by H2O. The sum of dirt eroding happening in the Caribbean has non been quantitively determined. The badness of the eroding depends on topography, rainfall, natural flora, erodibility of the dirts, land usage and dirt direction. Harmonizing to Breckner 1971, topographic effects are every bit utmost as the climatic effects. Several Caribbean islands are characterized by steep inclines with a high per centum ( 58 % ) of the land country holding inclines greater than 30 grades. Many inclines are greater than 45 grades and agriculture is practiced on these inclines ( Gumbs 1997 ) .2.7.1 TrinidadErosion surveies on a scope of dirt types in many tropical states have shown that dirt losingss can be extended ( Suarez De Castro 1951, 1952 ; Smith and Abruna 1985 ; Sheng and Michaelsen 1973 ; Lal 1976 ) . The earliest comprehensive study on dirt eroding in Trinidad was done by Hardy ( 1942 ) . He reported considerable gulling and sheet eroding in the foothills of the northern scope peculiarly in the western portion where intensive cultivation is carried out. Burning to unclutter the land for moisture season and landslides are common in some topographic points where the dirt is within six inches of parent stone. Beside s harmonizing to Hardy sheet eroding is an of import in the Caroni field. He suggested that the dirt on the sides of the extremely cambered beds of the sugar cane countries is straight exposed to the rains and is therefore merely as prone to eroding as open dirt on steep hills of the northern scope. In Las Lomas the sandy dirts are described as being really erodible. Since much of the land is a forest modesty, eroding is non a terrible job. In the cardinal scope land weirdo is a major job and the sothern inclines show many land slip cicatrixs. Chenery ( 1952 ) mentioned that Brasso clay, the most broad spread dirt of the cardinal scope is really scoured due to drawn-out cultivation. Both Hardy and Chenery commented on the terrible eroding of the marl soild and the associated ruddy dirts of the Naparima territory in southern Trinidad, with caps of open white marl being a common characteristic of the hills of the part. Alleyne and Percy ( 1966 ) measured the dirt loss from the major dirt type ( Maracas clay loam – orhoxic tropudult ) in the northern scope under Ananas comosus ( Ananas comosus ) with 50 % of the country terraced and pangola grass ( Digitaria decumbens ) . Under both types of flora the overflow was less than 10 % of rainfall and the dirt losingss were both really little ( & lt ; 0.4 and 0.05 metric tons per hectare during the moisture season ) . Lindsay and Gumbs ( 1982 ) have shown that this dirt type is merely somewhat erosible but the big sums of dirt can be lost from the bare dirt ( Gumbs and Lindsay 1982 ) . Report on losingss of N by eroding either in overflow or eroded deposits are limited. Neal ( 1944 ) considered that the bulk of nitrogen loss by eroding occurs in the organic fraction of the dirt as H2O easy loosens and floats off organic affair. Lal ( 1976 ) found there was a inclination for greater losingss of inorganic N in the erosed deposits than in the overflow H2O.2.7.2 Tobago:Information on the eroding state of affairs in Tobago are Brown et Al ( 1965 ) , Hardy ( 1942 ) and Breckner ( 1971 ) . All the cragged countries of Tobago is extremely prone to eroding with dirts formed from such extremely erosive parent stuffs as diorite and schists ruling. Volacanic tufas and breccias make up the 3rd major type of prent stone. In the South of the island eroding becomes a more serious job. Hardy has described heavy eroding in the Castara – Parlat country on the leeward side of the island. On the winward side of the island, big spots of land on the volcanic dirts are still being cleared, chiefly by firing and seting with cultivable harvests such as maize, land commissariats and tomatoes. The worst scoured country is in Mason Hall. – Les Coteaux territory. The flaxen clay loam dirts of this country formed from dioritein really irregular, steeply inclining topography look to be extremely erodible. This is due to the chief country sing provincial farming which involves intensive cultivation. It is of import to observe nevertheless that brown et al estimated that between 1956 and 1965 1500 estates of land have been treated by dirt preservation steps under the subsidies strategy. The authour saw no grounds of treated land. It was observed that dirt preservation steps were practicised. Limited dirt preservation is practiced chiefly in the signifier of intercropping and on occasion trash mulching ( Gumbs 1997 ) .2.7.3 Antigua:The low rainfall and degree topography of much of both Antigua and Barbuda has meant that non as much eroding has occurred as in some other parts of the West Indies ( Hill 1964 ; Vernon and Lang 1964 ) . However much accelerated eroding has occurred in the cragged countries of Antigua. Cotton was grown extensively and requires a long fallow period under hapless hapless direction. Monoculture of sugar cane in the yesteryear has besides added to the loss of much dirt in hilly countries. Harsh and Torrential rains occur frequently after long periods of drouths when vegetive screen is thin. This has contributed to the eroding job. In the hills of the cardinal part, Indian Creek loam and Liberta clay loam are both described as being really eroded with parent stuff being exposed in some topographic points. In the south West mountains, frys clay loam and springhill loam, small dirt is left at all on the steeper slopes.2.7.4 Barbados:Harmonizing to Veron and Carroll ( 1966 ) about 25 % of Barbados occurs occupies comparatively level coral dirts on which eroding is non considered to be terrible. They suggested that eroding control measures, possibly necessary on the dirts of highland tableland of St. toilet ‘s Valley. In the hilly Scotland District eroding is really terrible. Cumberbatch ( 1985 ) reported that it was estimated that 70 % of the country was threatened by eroding and that 11 % of it had reached a really terrible province of debasement. L andslides and gullying are common.2.7.5 Dominica:The dirts of Dominica are extremely permeable except dirts formed on pyrogenic stones, the shoal dirts and other dirts become less permeable during pedologic development. As a consequence non as much eroding occurs. Dominica is charaterised by steep inclines where 86 % of the land country has inclines greater than 20 grades and merely 2 % has slopes between 0 to 5 grades. Slopes of over 60 % with natural flora and cultivated inclines over 50 grades are reported by Lang ( 1967 ) , bespeaking that the dirt is of unusual stableness. It is of import to observe nevertheless that eroding is limited because much of the land is still under forest. On the Leeward side of the island, most of the shoal dirts and other dirts of low permeableness occur. Poor dirt and harvest direction has been the major subscriber to the dirt eroding job. The slow regeneration of dirt suitable for cropping in he dry countries ( as in St. Lucia besides ) increases he strength of dirt eroding. Harmonizing to the environment profile of Dominica prepared under the advice of the Caribbean Conservation Association in 1991, Dominica has great potency for agricultural development without damaging or remotion of the forest lands. Forestry and forestry development are of import. Timber extraction is undertaken but harmonizing to Russell ( 1974 ) it amendss merely a comparatively little country and the eroding caused is non important.2.7.6 Grenada and Carriacou:Harmonizing to Vernon et Al ( 1958 ) , although some terrible eroding can be seen in the hills where switching cultivation, atomization of land, hapless land distribution and hapless cultivation patterns exist, Grenada has suffered less from eroding and birthrate exhaustion than many of the Caribbean islands. There are two chief grounds for this ; The island ‘s agribusiness is chiefly on tree harvests, chocolate ( Theobroma chocolate tree ) and nut million ( Myristica fragrans ) , banana an nutrient harvests are often interplante with chocolate ; and major wood fires are non prevailing. The dirt parent stuff is really basal rich an the dirt has been farther enriched by add-ons of volcanic ash from eruptions in about islands in recent times. Even if some surface dirt is lost, the underlying open stuff is about as fertile and promotes raid vegetive growing. Caribbean has suffered really terrible eroding over about the whole island and in many instances merely the parent stone remains.This has been as a consequence of the erodible nature of the dirt, unsustainable cultivation methods an overgrazing. The dirts of cariacou are skeletal dirts over ash and agglomerate dirts formed from other pyrogenic stones and those formed from limestone. They are all susceptible to eroding and deep gullies.2.7.7 Monsteratt:Lang ( 1976 ) describes the whole island as enduring from terrible dirt eroding and the greater part holding lost its top dirt. Unlike the dirts of Dominica, they are by and large unstable and many dirts are extremely erodible if cultivated on inclines greater than ten grades.2.7.8 St. Vincent:Harmonizing to Watson et Al ( 1958 ) dirt and land usage study of St. Vincent, he mentioned that because of certain types of harvests grown, dirt eroding is a serious job. The three harvests which contribute to much of the eroding are cotton ( Gos sypium sp. ) , arrowroot ( Maranta arundinacea ) and land nuts ( Arachis hypogaea ) . Cultivation of these harvests disturb the dirt and go forth the dirt bare for long periods. Erosion can be seen in all but the flattest countries. It is of import to observe nevertheless that the husbandmans of St. Vincent are witting of the eroding job and dirt preservation methods are of high criterions.2.7.9 St Lucia:Soil eroding is a major job in St. Lucia. Many of the dirts inside are susceptible to heavy rains and dirt can be seen being washed off by even the smallest rills ( Stark et al 1966 ) . In countries of allophonic clay dirts, slouching is a job and gullying besides is common throughout the island. Common patterns such as clean cultivation of really steep land and of uncluttering steeply inclining forested land which would be left under its original flora have accentuated the state of affairs. Probably the most terrible affecs of eroding are on the so called â€Å" shoal dirts † which contain a bed of indurated stuff in the substrate.2.7.9.1 St. Kitts and Nevis:Information on dirt eroding on these two islands is taken from the dirt study study by Lang and Carrol ( 1967 ) Erosion in the cragged countries of the islands has much been reduced by conserving the country in wood. Where the wood has been cleared and planted to proviso harvests, some accelerated eroding is seen. The undersoil of most of the island ‘s dirts is free run outing and contour cultivation is common the worst effects of eroding are normally avoided. On the island of Nevis in contrast, much eroding can be seen. In much of the chief agribusiness countries the surface dirt has been lost wholly.2.7.9.2 Jamaica:The dirt study studies of Jamaica ( Barker, 1963 and 1970 ; Finch 1959 and 1961 ; Morgan and Baker, 1963 ; Price 1959a and 1959b ; Stark 1963, 1964a and 1964b ; Vernon, 1959 and 1960 ) indicate that dirt eroding is rampant in many parts and on many dirts of the island. One of the major factors is population force per unit area which consequences in increasing frequence and strength of land usage or the usage of land beyond its capableness. The parishes of Westmorland, Portland, Hanover, Clarendon and St. Elizabeth are particularly noted as enduring from terrible accelerated eroding. Soils where eroding is a serious job are limestone dirts, shale deriveds and the dirts formed on grano-diorite. Besides the shale dirt dirts are noted for their superficiality, hapless infiltration and permeableness, factors which contribute to serious